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THE  ISTHMIAN  CANAL 


BY 


H.  H./ROUSSEAU 

CIVIL  ENGINEER,  U.  S.  NAVY 
MEMBER   ISTHMIAN 
CANAL  COMMISSION 


PRESENTED  AT  THE  TWENTIETH  ANNUAL 
SESSION  OF  THE  TRANS -MISSISSIPPI  COM- 
MERCIAL CONGRESS 

HELD  AT  DENVER,  COLO. 
AUGUST  16-21,  1909 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 
1909 


THE  ISTHMIAN  CANAL 


BY 


H.  H.  ROUSSEAU 

CIVIL  ENGINEER,  U.  S.  NAVY 
MEMBER    ISTHMIAN 
CANAL  COMMISSION 


PRESENTED  AT  THE  TWENTIETH  ANNUAL 
SESSION  OF  THE  TRANS -MISSISSIPPI  COM- 
MERCIAL CONGRESS 

HELD  AT  DENVER,  COLO. 
AUGUST  16-21,  1909 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 
1909 


THE  ISTHMIAN  CANAL. 


BY  H.  H.  ROUSSEAU, 

Civil  Engineer,  U.  S.  Navy, 

Member  Isthmian  Canal  Commission. 


In  the  days  that  are  to  come,  the  pages  of  history  will  mark  as  & 
milestone,  in  the  progressive  western  trend  of  civilization,  the  com- 
pletion of  the  Panama  Canal,  which  can  now  be  predicted  to  occur  by 
January  1,  1915. 

Its  history  is  an  interesting  one,  and  has  been  over  four  centuries 
in  the  making;  but  since  the  first  hardy  adventurers,  pushing  west- 
ward from  their  native  shores,  landed  on  the  American  coast,  there 
has  been  no  more  doubt  that  this  project  would  not,  as  an  indispen- 
sable factor  in  the  future  of  the  American  continent,  ultimately  ma- 
terialize, than  that  those  selfsame  pioneers  would  not  continue  their 
westward  journey  overland  from  the  North  Atlantic  coast  to  the 
Mississippi  River,  thence  over  broad  plains  and  rugged  mountains, 
and  finally,  as  has  long  since  been  seen,  reach  the  Pacific  Ocean,  car- 
rying with  them  and  leaving  in  their  trail  the  energy  and  spirit  that 
have  developed  and  now  maintain  the  American  nation. 

In  these  centuries,  during  which  the  North  American  continent 
has  been  forging  ahead,  there  has  been  no  uncertainty  as  to  the 
construction  at  the  proper  time  of  a  canal  between  North  and  South 
America.  Only  three  matters  have  been  unknown: 

First.  By  whom  the  canal  would  be  built; 

Second.  Its  location;  and 

Third.  When  it  would  be  built. 

Spain,  England,  Portugal,  and  France  have  all  embarked  upon 
the  work,  either  directly  or  by  giving  aid  and  encouragement  to  their 
representatives,  and  failed.  The  time  for  success  had  not  yet 

3 

M67199 


4  THE   ISTHMIAN    CANAL. 

arrived,  for  even  if  the  funds  with  which  to  prosecute  the  work 
iiad  been  unlimited,  the  difficulties  were  then  too  great  for  engineer- 
ing and  medical  science  to  solve. 

It  was  President  Grant  who  first  advanced  the  policy  of  "an 
American  canal  under  American  control/'  and  it  was  President 
Roosevelt  who,  voicing  the  sentiments  of  the  entire  American  people, 
lent  the  aid  of  the  United  States  in  undertaking  the  work,  which  is 
being  hastened  to  completion  by  President  Taft. 

It  is  interesting  to  review  the  various  steps  and  numerous  attempts 
which  have  led  up  to  the  construction  of  the  canal. 
, :  ,First  there  was  Balboa,  who,  driven  from  home  by  his  creditors, 
landed  on  the  Isthnius  of  Panama  in  1500,  where  he  married  the 
id'augjhiter  6;f;  &n  /Indian  chief.  In  1513  he  organized  an  expedi- 
tion that  crossed  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  afoot  in  twenty- 
three  days  over  what  is  now  known  as  the  Caledonia  Canal  route, 
one  of  the  score  of  projected  routes  that  have  been  since  advocated 
at  various  times  by  various  persons.  Old  Panama,  on  the  Pacific 
side,  which  afterwards  became  known  as  the  richest  city  in  the  world 
©f  its  time,  was  settled  in  1517,  and  the  highways  from  old  Panama 
to  Nombre  de  ftos,  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  and  from  old  Panama  to 
Porto  Bello,  which  were  soon  afterwards  built,  became  the  first  regu- 
larly traveled  routes  across  the  Isthmus,  over  which  passed  all  the 
spoils  of  conquest  sent  back  to  Spain  from  Peru.  These  highways, 
paved  with  stone,  furnished  ample  facilities  for  the  pack  trains  which 
traveled  over  them  for  many  years,  and  to-day  some  parts  of  these 
roads  are  in  good  condition  and  can  be  traced  for  miles  through  the 
tropical  vegetation  in  which  they  remain  hidden  and  unused. 

It  was  in  those  early  days  that  the  idea  of  a  canal  took  birth,  even 
while  the  existence  of  a  natural  strait  was  in  doubt.  A  Spanish 
engineer,  named  Saavedra,  one  of  Balboa's  followers  on  the  Isthmus, 
is  reported  to  have  been  its  first  advocate,  in  1517.  After  studying 
the  subject  for  years  he  was  about  to  forward  his  plans  in  1529  to 
Charles  V,  King  of  Spain,  when  his  death  occurred.  Surveys  of  the 
Isthmus  with  this  object  in  view  were  ordered,  but  the  work  was 
reported  to  be  impracticable,  and  with  the  tools  available  in  those 
days  this  was  certainly  true.  Philip  II,  successor  to  Charles  V,  in 
1567,  sent  an  engineer  to  survey  the  Nicaragua  route,  who  likewise 
submitted  a  report  unfavorable  to  the  success  of  the  work.  In  his 


THE   ISTHMIAN    CANAL.  9 

perplexity  Philip  is  said  to  have  laid  the  matter  before  the  Dominican 
friars,  who  desired  to  obey  the  king's  orders,  but  being  unable  to 
report  intelligently  on  such  a  problem,  after  searching  the  Bible 
quoted  the  following  verse  as  having  direct  reference  to  the  Isthmian 
Canal : 

"What  God  hath  joined  together,  let  no  man  put  asunder."  This 
was  sufficient  for  King  Philip,  who  laid  the  canal  project  on  the  shelf, 
where  it  remained  through  the  reigns  of  his  various  successors  for 
two  centuries  after  his  death. 

In  1814,  feeling  the  necessity  of  reviving  its  waning  prestige  in  its 
Central  American  colonies,  Spain  entered  upon,  by  decree,  the  con- 
struction of  an  Isthmian  canal,  but  before  any  steps  could  be  taken 
to  carry  out  this  purpose  her  Central  and  South  American  colonies 
obtained  their  independence.  With  the  successful  termination  of 
the  revolt  of  the  Spanish  provinces  Spain  passes  from  the  history  of 
the  Isthmian  Canal,  except  through  furnishing  some  of  the  laborers 
to  dig  the  American  canal. 

All  the  enthusiasm  of  those  early  days  in  regard  to  the  canal  idea, 
was  unavailing  for  lack  of  proper  tools  and  sufficient  capital.  More- 
over, the  old  stone  highways  filled  requirements  very  well.  The 
Atlantic  terminus  of  the  road  from  old  Panama,  which  passes  through 
Cruces,  on  the  Chagres  River,  had  been  changed  from  Nombre  de 
Dios  to  Porto  Bello  about  1597.  This  route  was  followed  by  Morgan 
in  his  raid,  which  resulted  in  the  destruction  of  old  Panama  in  1671, 
two  years  after  he  had  sacked  Porto  Bello. 

England  entered  the  lists  with  Lord  Nelson  and  Baron  von  Hum- 
boldt  as  its  representatives,  who  made  researches  and  reports  on 
the  Nicaragua  and  other  canal  routes  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eight- 
eenth and  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  centuries.  Goethe's  far- 
seeing  prophecy,  at  this  time,  of  American  settlement  and  control  of 
the  Pacific  coast,  and  the  necessity  of  an  Isthmian  canal  as  a  con- 
necting link  between  our  east  and  west  coasts  deserves  especial 
attention. 

In  1825,  President  Bolivar,  of  the  Republic  of  New  Granada,  gave 
to  a  Frenchman,  Baron  Thierry,  a  franchise  for  a  canal  at  Panama, 
who  failed  in  raising  the  required  capital.  President  Bolivar  then 
commissioned  a  British  engineer,  Mr.  J.  A.  Lloyd,  to  survey  the  Isth- 
mus for  either  a  road  or  canal. 


6  THE  ISTHMIAN    CANAL. 

While  some  negotiations  were  undertaken  by  citizens  of  the  United 
States  prior  to  1830,  the  year  1835  really  marks  the  entrance  of  the 
United  States  into  the  history  of  the  canal,  through  a  resolution 
introduced  in  the  Senate  by  Henry  Clay,  in  pursuance  of  which 
President  Jackson  commissioned  Mr.  Charles  Biddle  to  visit  the 
Isthmus  and  report  on  the  availability  of  the  different  routes  for 
interoceanic  communication.  Mr.  Biddle  proceeded  to  Chagres,the 
only  available  Atlantic  port,  thence  to  Cruces  by  boat,  and  to  Panama 
by  mule  back.  He  was  much  impressed  with  the  advantages  and 
practicability  of  the  Panama  route,  and  afterwards  visiting  Bogota, 
with  the  assistance  of  Don  Jose"  Obaldia,  the  father  of  the  present 
President  of  the  Republic  of  Panama,  obtained  a  franchise  to  build 
a  railroad  across  the  Isthmus.  He  returned  to  the  United  States 
without  making  an  examination  of  the  Tehuantepec  and  other  Cen- 
tral American  routes,  as  he  had  intended.  On  account  of  the  panic 
of  1837,  the  United  States  was  not  in  any  condition  to  finance  an 
undertaking  like  this,  and  the  matter  was  dropped. 

In  1838  a  concession  was  granted  to  a  French  company  for  the 
construction  of  highways,  railroads,  or  a  canal  across  the  Isthmus. 
The  Government  of  France  became  interested,  and  sent  an  engineer, 
Napoleon  Garella,  to  report  on  the  enterprise.  He  advocated  a 
canal  as  the  only  adequate  means  of  communication  across  the  Isth- 
mus. The  concession  was,  however,  allowed  to  lapse  without  per- 
forming any  work,  on  account  of  lack  of  capital. 

The  attention  of  the  American  people  was  again  turned  to  trans- 
portation via  the  Isthmus  by  the  settlement  of  the  Northwest  boun- 
dary question,  by  which  we  came  into  possession  of  Oregon,  and  by 
the  Mexican  war,  which  added  California  to  our  possessions.  Com- 
munication overland  to  the  Pacific  slope  was  difficult  and  dangerous, 
which  deflected  the  main  current  of  immigration  via  Cape  Horn. 
To  render  this  newly  acquired  territory  more  accessible,  lines  of 
steamers  from  New  York  to  the  Isthmus  and  from  the  Isthmus  to 
California  and  Oregon  were  inaugurated  by  Americans  having  in 
view  the  construction  of  a  railroad  as  a  connecting  link  across  the 
Isthmus,  from  which  they  would  derive  the  greater  part  of  their 
profits.  Securing  a  franchise  therefor  from  the  Government  of 
New  Granada  in  1848,  Messrs.  Aspinwall,  Stephens  and  Chauncey 
entered  upon  the  construction  of  the  Panama  Railroad,  and  .after 


THE   ISTHMIAN    CANAL.  7 

successfully  coping  with  various  financial  and  physical  difficulties 
opened  the  road  from  Aspinwall  (now  Colon)  to  Panama  in  1855. 
Under  its  very  advantageous  concession,  the  Panama  Railroad  Com- 
pany held  exclusive  right  to  construct  a  railroad  or  canal  in  a  certain 
territory,  which  gave  it  complete  control  of  the  Panama  route,  which 
by  subsequent  modification  dated  for  ninety-nine  years  from  1867. 
First-class  railroad  fare  for  many  years  after  the  road  was  opened 
was  $25  across  the  Isthmus — over  50  cents  per  mile.  The  time  of 
passage  was  four  hours.  The  present  first-class  fare  is  $2.40,  and 
time  of  transit  two  hours  and  a  quarter. 

The  promoters  of  the  Panama  Railroad  had  based  its  prospects  on 
the  advantages  which  it  would  afford  from  shortening  the  route  to 
California  and  Oregon,  and  also  to  the  Orient,  and  from  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Pacific  coast.  The  discovery  of  gold  in  California  in 
the  latter  part  of  1848,  with  its  accompanying  immigration  westward, 
changed  the  prospects  of  the  railroad  and  put  it  on  a  firm  basis 
financially  and  made  the  enterprise  one  in  which  the  Government 
as  well  as  the  people  of  the  United  States  became  deeply  interested. 

Railroad  communication  across  the  Isthmus  was  now  finally  es- 
tablished and  the  construction  of  a  canal  was  relegated  to  the  back- 
ground, so  far  as  the  Panama  Railroad  was  concerned.  Meanwhile 
other  canal  routes  were  exploited  by  a  small  army  of  promoters. 

Altogether  19  different  routes  have  been  suggested  and  received 
more  or  less  attention.  Of  these,  the  Tehuantepec,  Nicaragua, 
Panama,  and  Darien  projects  are  the  most  important,  and  Nicaragua 
has  been  Panama's  principal  rival  in  the  last  thirty  years. 

The  railroad  did  not  in  general  opinion  meet  satisfactorily  the  re- 
quirements of  interoceanic  communication,  and,  in  1869,  the  United 
States  again  took  up  the  canal  question,  and  President  Grant  ap- 
pointed an  interoceanic  canal  commission.  Negotiations  were  en- 
tered into  between  our  Government  and  the  United  States  of  Co- 
lombia for  building  a  canal,  and  a  treaty  was  signed  in  1870  providing 
that  the  work  would  be  undertaken  if  a  satisfactory  route  could  be 
surveyed.  The  territory  covered  by  the  Panama  Railroad  Com- 
pany's franchise  was  respected,  and  an  examination  was  made  of 
other  less  favorable  routes,  including  the  Caledonia,  San  Bias,  and 
Atrato  routes,  and  finally  the  commission  took  up  the  Nicaragua  route 
and  reported  favorably  on  it  in  1876.  But  nothing  was  done,  the 


8  THE   ISTHMIAN    CANAL. 

United  States  temporarily  lost  its  opportunity,  and  the  representatives 
of  France  stepped  in  and  remained  in  control  of  operations  for  twenty- 
eight  years — until  1904,  when  they  retired,  defeated,  in  favor  of  the 
United  States. 

The  Universal  Interoceanic  Canal  Company  by  which  the  work 
was  performed  was  organized  and  incorporated  by  Ferdinand  de 
Lesseps  in  Paris  in  1878.  The  movement  in  which  it  resulted  was 
started  by  a  French  promoter  who  secured  a  concession  from  the 
United  States  of  Colombia  for  the  construction  of  a  canal.  He  trans- 
ferred his  concession  to  a  speculative  company  called  the  "  Inter- 
national Civil  Society  of  the  Interoceanic  Canal."  De  Lesseps  be- 
came interested  and  surveys  of  the  Atrato  and  San  Bias  routes  were 
made,  which  were  pronounced  impracticable.  Finally,  the  Panama 
route  was  surveyed  and  a  concession  was  obtained  from  the  Colom- 
bian Government  for  the  construction  of  a  canal  on  any  part  of  the 
Isthmus,  with  the  understanding  that  the  company  would  make 
satisfactory  arrangements  with  the  Panama  Railroad  Company  in 
case  the  latter's  territory  was  invaded.  De  Lesseps  convened  a 
congress  known  as  the  "  International  Congress  of  Surveys  for  an  In- 
teroceanic Canal"  in  Paris  in  1879,  which  pronounced  in  favor  of  a 
sea-level  canal  from  Limon  Bay  to  Panama  Bay,  at  a  cost  of  $240,- 
000,000  and  time  of  completion  twelve  years.  Less  than  100  delegates 
of  the  135  were  present  when  the  sea-level  resolution  was  passed  and 
only  78  voted  in  favor  of  it.  The  Universal  Interoceanic  Canal  Com- 
pany was  then  formed  with  De  Lesseps  at  its  head.  The  control  of 
the  Panama  Railroad  was  secured  through  the  purchase  of  its  stock 
at  a  high  figure — over  $18,000,000.  Work  was  entered  upon  and 
pushed  vigorously  on  the  sea-level  plan.  De  Lesseps' s  success  at 
Suez  made  him  a  strong  advocate  of  the  sea-level  type,  and  a  majority 
of  the  delegates  had  been  accordingly  influenced  in  their  vote  on  the 
question.  The  original  capital  of  $60,000,000  was  quickly  snapped 
up,  and  the  first  two  years  were  spent  in  making  surveys,  examina- 
tions, and  other  preliminary  work. 

The  first  plan  adopted  was  for  a  sea-level  canal  29 J  feet  deep  and 
having  a  minimum  bottom  width  of  72  feet.  It  included  a  tunnel 
through  the  continental  divide  at  Culebra.  The  currents  due  to  the 
difference  in  tides  of  the  two  oceans  were  to  be  reduced  by  sloping  the 
bottom  of  the  canal  on  the  Pacific  side.  No  special  attention  was  given 


THE   ISTHMIAN    CANAL.  9 

to  the  Chagres  River.  Afterwards  a  tidal  lock  near  the  Pacific  was 
provided  and  also  a  dam  was  to  be  constructed  at  Gamboa  to  control 
the  Chagres.  The  tunnel  through  the  divide  was  changed,  also,  to 
an  open  cut.  Subscriptions  for  stock  had  been,  meanwhile,  called  for 
yearly  and  were  dwindling.  In  1887  the  evident  impossibility  of 
completing  the  wrork  within  a  reasonable  cost  led  to  the  substitution 
for  the  sea-level  plan,  of  one  involving  temporary  locks,  with  the  sum- 
mit level  placed  above  the  flood  line  of  the  Chagres  River,  and  sup- 
plied with  water  from  the  Chagres  by  pumping.  Work  was  con- 
tinued until  1889  when  the  company  went  into  bankruptcy.  A  re- 
ceiver was  appointed  and  work  was  suspended  on  May  15.  Over 
$260,000,000  had  been  spent  and  about  66,700,000  cubic  yards  of 
excavation  had  been  accomplished,  at  a  cost  of  nearly  $4  per  cubic 
yard. 

The  new  Panama  Canal  Company  was  formed  in  October,  1894, 
and  resumed  operations  on  the  canal,  principally  in  Culebra  cut,  in 
accordance  with  plans  recommended  by  a  commission  of  engineers. 
This  company  continued  to  do  sufficient  work*  to  maintain  its  fran- 
chise until  all  of  its  rights  and  property  were  transferred  to  the  United 
States  Government  in  1904.  It  excavated  about  11,400,000  cubic 
yards.  During  this  time,  also,  very  thorough  investigations  of  all 
engineering  matters  pertaining  to  the  construction  of  the  canal  were 
made,  which  have  since  proved  of  great  value.  The  plans  of  this 
company  provided  a  sea-level  channel  on  the  Atlantic  side,  about  1 7 
miles  in  length,  from  Limon  Bay  to  Bohio,  where  a  dam  with  a  flight 
of  two  locks  made  an  artificial  lake  extending  to  Bas  Obispo.  The 
summit  level  from  Bas  Obispo  to  Paraiso  was  reached  through  two 
locks  at  Bas  Obispo.  The  level  of  the  summit  was  102J  feet  above 
sea  level.  The  depth  of  water  was  34  J  feet  and  the  bottom  width  of 
the  channel  98  feet.  The  summit  level  was  supplied  with  water 
through  a  feeder  from  a  reservoir  formed  by  a  dam  at  Alhajuela  on 
the  Chagres  River,  about  11  miles  above  Gamboa.  Four  smaller 
locks  were  located  on  the  Pacific  side,  the  two  middle  ones  at  Pedro 
Miguel  being  combined  in  one  flight,  and  the  others  being  located  at 
Paraiso  and  Miraflores.  The  locks  were  in  duplicate,  each  with 
usable  dimensions  of  738  feet  in  length  and  82  feet  in  width.  It  was 
contemplated  at  the  proper  time  to  consider  the  adoption  of  the  alter- 
native plan  of  making  the  summit  cut  deeper  and  omitting  the  upper 
7567—09 2 


10  THE   ISTHMIAN    CANAL. 

level.  Between  Bohio  and  the  sea  two  diversion  channels  were  pro- 
vided to  take  care  of  floods  from  the  rivers  that  would  otherwise 
enter  the  canal. 

Progress  having  practically  ceased  at  Panama  under  the  new 
French  Canal  Company,  to  meet  the  growing  sentiment  in  favor  of 
more  satisfactory  interoeeanic  communication,  on  March  3,  1899, 
the  Congress  of  the  United  States  passed  an  act  authorizing  the 
President  to  make  full  and  complete  investigations  of  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama  with  a  view  to  the  construction  of  a  canal  to  connect  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans. 

This  marks  the  opening  of  the  last  chapter  in  the  construction  of 
the  Panama  Canal,  the  end  of  which  is  now,  by  the  early  completion 
of  the  canal,  in  sight.  The  commission  appointed  in  accordance  with 
the  above  act  was  called  upon  to  investigate  particularly  the  Nicara- 
gua and  the  Panama  routes  and  to  report  which  was  the  more  prac- 
ticable and  feasible,  and  the  cost.  In  November,  1901,  it  reported 
in  favor  of  the  Nicaragua  route,  considering  the  demands  of  the  New 
Panama  Canal  Company  for  its  franchise  and  property  more  than 
balanced  the  other  advantages  of  the  Panama  route.  The  price 
fixed  by  the  Panama  Canal  Company  was  $109,000,000.  By  subse- 
quent negotiations  the  French  company  was  induced  to  reduce  its 
price  to  $40,000,000,  and  the  commission  in  January,  1902,  submitted 
a  supplemental  report  in  favor  of  the  Panama  route.  The  plan 
recommended  by  the  commission  was  for  a  lock  canal,  with  a  sea- 
level  channel  from  Colon  to  Bohio.  A  dam  at  Bohio,  across  the 
Chagres  Valley,  was  to  create  a  summit  level  82  to  90  feet  above 
the  sea  to  be  reached  by  two  locks.  The  lake  extended  to  Pedro 
Miguel,  where  two  locks  lowered  the  level  to  28  feet  above  sea  level. 
At  Miraflores  sea  level  was  reached  through  a  third  lock.  The  bot- 
tom width  was  to  be  1 50  feet,  except  in  Panama  Bay,  where  it  was 
200  feet,  and  in  Limon  Bay,  500  feet,  with  turning  basins  800  feet 
wide.  The  minimum  depth  was  35  feet.  The  locks  were  to  be  740 
feet  long  and  84  feet  wide. 

In  accordance  with  this  report,  act  of  Congress  of  June  28,  1902, 
known  since  as  the  "Spooner  Act,"  authorized  the  President  of  the 
United  States  to  proceed  with  the  construction  of  a  canal  by  the 
Panama  route,  provided  arrangements  could  be  made  with  the  New 
Panama  Canal  Company  for  the  purchase  of  its  property  and  fran- 


THE   ISTHMIAN   CANAL.  11 

chise  for  not  exceeding  $40,000,000,  and  provided  arrangements 
could  be  made  with  the  Republic  of  Colombia  for  the  control  of  the 
necessary  right  of  way.  In  the  event  of  failure  of  these  negotiations 
the  Nicaragua  route  was  to  be  adopted.  The  law  provided  that  the 
canal  should  be  "of  sufficient  capacity  and  depth  as  shall  afford  con- 
venient passage  for  vessels  of  the  largest  tonnage  and  greatest  draft 
now  in  use  and  such  as  may  be  reasonably  anticipated."  Appropri- 
ations were  made  to  carry  out  the  provisions  of  the  act,  and  a  bond 
issue  of  $130,000.000  was  authorized.  The  bond  issue  was  based  on 
the  estimates  accompanying  the  report  of  the  commission  of  1901 
recommending  a  lock  canal. 

Satisfactory  arrangements  were  completed  for  the  purchase  of  the 
French  company's  rights,  etc.,  for  $40,000,000  and  negotiations  with 
the  Republic  of  Colombia  were  carried  on  to  secure  other  necessary 
rights  and  privileges  not  held  by  the  French  company.  After  a 
long  delay,  a  satisfactory  treaty  was  formulated,  which  was  rejected 
by  Colombia  in  1903. 

The  province  of  Panama,  an  integral  part  of  Colombia,  thereupon 
seceded  and  organized  an  independent  republic.  This  resulted  in  the 
negotiation  of  a  satisfactory  treaty  with  the  new  Republic  of  Panama, 
including  the  payment,  under  certain  terms,  of  $10,000,000  by  the 
United  vStates  to  the  Republic  of  Panama.  Under  this  treaty  the 
United  States  guaranteed  the  independence  of  the  Republic  of  Panama 
and  secured  absolute  control  over  what  is  now  called  the  Canal  Zone, 
a  strip  of  land  about  10  miles  in  width,  with  the  canal  through  the 
center,  and  45  miles  in  length  from  sea  to  sea,  with  an  area  of  about 
448  square  miles.  The  United  States  also  has  jurisdiction  over  the 
adjacent  water  for  3  miles  from  shore.  To  all  intents  and  purposes  it 
is  a  perpetual  lease  from  the  Republic  of  Panama  to  the  United  States 
of  all  governmental  rights  and  privileges  in  this  territory,  and  yet, 
strictly  speaking,  it  is  not  United  States  soil,  for  residents  therein 
acquire  no  rights  of  United  States  citizenship  and  have  no  voice  in 
United  States  elections,  while  citizens  of  the  Republic  of  Panama 
residing  in  the  Canal  Zone  are  protected  in  their  electoral  rights  and 
are  accustomed  to  go  to  Panama  and  Colon  to  vote  in  the  Pana- 
manian elections.  The  cities  of  Panama  and  Colon  and  a  certain  water 
frontage  adjacent  thereto,  while  within  the  5-mile  limit  from  the 
center  line  of  the  canal,  which  bounds  the  Canal  Zone,  are  excluded 


12  THE   ISTHMIAN    CANAL. 

from  the  Canal  Zone  and  are  considered  Panamanian  territory, 
although  the  United  States  has,  under  the  treaty  with  the  Republic 
of  Panama,  the  right  to  regulate  sanitary  matters  therein,  and,  if 
necessary  to  preserve  order,  to  enter  those  cities  with  armed  forces 
and  take  possession  of  them. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  United  States  received  ample  considera- 
tion for  the  $40,000,000  paid  to  the  New  French  Canal  Company,  viz : 

Excavation  by  the  French  useful  in  the  present  project,  estimated 
at  not  far  from  40,000,000  cubic  yards,  has  been  conservatively 
valued  at  $27,500,000. 

The  Panama  Railroad,  with  its  franchise  and  all  rights,  etc.,  which 
had  been  purchased  for  over  $18,000,000  by  the  old  French  company, 
was  valued  at  $7,000,000,  the  par  value  of  outstanding  stock. 

About  43,000  acres  of  land  went  with  the  Panama  Railroad  prop- 
erty and  33.000  acres  were  acquired  from  the  French  Canal  Company, 
a  total  of  76,000  acres. 

The  maps,  drawings,  and  all  other  technical  data  that  were  taken 
over  from  the  French  company  were  valued  at  $2,000,000,  and  build- 
ings, machinery,  etc.,  at  $3,500,000;  the  whole  totaling  $40,000,000. 

Up  to  the  present  time  French  machinery,  conservatively  appraised 
at  $1,000,000,  has  been  used,  and  the  net  value  of  French  buildings 
which  are  in  use,  not  including  cost  of  repairs,  is  not  far  from 
$2,000,000. 

The  principal  point  of  excellence  in  regard  to  this  French  machin- 
ery, which  has  weathered  so  well  on  the  Isthmus  for  the  past  twenty- 
five  years,  is  the  quality  of  material  and  workmanship.  In  design, 
speed,  and  size  of  units  it  is  far  behind  the  present  standards.  Plow- 
ever,  it  was  the  best  of  ;ts  kind  in  that  day. 

In  consideration  of  the  $10,000,000  paid  to  the  Government  of 
Panama  for  the  rights  conveyed,  there  was  turned  over  to  the  United 
States,  in  addition,  all  public  lands  in  the  Canal  Zone,  amounting  to 
about  120,000  acres.  This  makes  the  United  States  Government  the 
direct  owner  of  70  per  cent  of  the  land  in  the  Canal  Zone,  the  remain- 
ing 30  per  cent  being  held  by  private  owners,  mostly  citizens  of  the 
Republic  of  Panama.  The  United  States  exercises  governmental 
rights  over  all. 

The  act  of  Congress  of  1902  placed  entire  jurisdiction  in  regard  to 
the  construction  of  the  canal  in  the  hands  of  the  President  of  the 


THE  ISTHMIAN   CANAL.  13 

United  States,  the  particular  functions  in  regard  thereto  being  exer- 
cised by  a  commission  composed  of  seven  members  appointed  in 
accordance  with  the  act, of  Congress,  presided  over  by  one  member  as 
chairman.  For  convenience  in  administration  the  canal  operations 
have  been  placed  under  the  Secretary  of  War. 

The  formal  transfer  of  the  property  of  the  French  Canal  Company 
to  the  United  States  took  place  on  May  4,  1904,  and  the  first  two  and 
one-half  years  thereafter,  or  until  January,  1907,  were  devoted 
largely  to  the  work  of  preparation,  consisting  of  building  up  a  suitable 
organization;  procuring  the  necessary  plant  and  equipment;  com- 
bating insanitary  conditions,  eliminating  yellow  fever,  and  reducing 
malaria;  reconstructing  and  double-tracking  the  Panama  Railroad; 
improving  terminal  facilities,  and  making  provision  for  adequate  and 
efficient  transportation  to  the  Isthmus  from  the  United  States,  a  large 
item  in  itself;  the  design  and  building  of  suitable  quarters  for  the 
army  of  nearly  5,000  American  employees  and  over  25,000  laborers; 
introducing  a  stable  form  of  civil  government  and  administration, 
including  courts,  schools,  police,  fire  department,  etc. — in  other 
words,  doing  everything  necessary  to  transform  the  jungle,  infested 
with  mosquitoes  and  various  low  forms  of  animal  and  vegetable  life, 
injurious  to  health,  into  a  comparatively  healthful  country  with  all 
the  advantages  and  conveniences  and  equivalent  conditions  of  life  as 
regards  comfort,  food,  and  quarters,  as  are  enjoyed  by  the  average 
citizen  in  the  United  States.  All  of  this  took  time  and  a  great  deal  of 
money,  but  it  has  resulted  in  advancing  the  condition  and  developing 
the  territory  in  question,  which  was  practically  in  the  same  state  that 
it  was  in  the  sixteenth  century,  to  the  plane  of  twentieth  century 
civilization — and  all  in  two  and  one-half  years. 

Attention  was  early  drawn  to  the  insanitary  condition  of  the 
cities  of  Panama  and  Colon,  and  it  was  soon  perceived  that  if  a 
pestilence  should  obtain  a  foothold  in  those  cities  it  would  seriously 
affect  canal  work.  To  eliminate  this  danger,  Panama  has  been 
provided  with  substantial  brick  pavements,  has  been  well  sewered 
and  furnished  with  a  supply  of  wholesome  drinking  water.  The 
city  of  Colon  has  been  transformed  from  a  swamp  into  a  town  like- 
wise comparable  with  a  city  of  the  same  size  in  the  United  States, 
so  far  as  pavements,  water  supply,  and  sewers  are  concerned.  This 
work  has  cost  about  $2,275,000,  and  at  the  last  session  of  Congress 


14  THE   ISTHMIAN    CANAL. 

$800,000  more  was  specially  appropriated  to  carry  on  the  additional 
work  which  has  become  necessary  on  account  of  the  growth  of 
the  suburbs  of  Panama  and  the  necessity  of  extending  the  building 
limits  of  the  city  of  Colon,  due  to  the  large  increase  in  population. 
Under  the  terms  of  the  treaty  the  cost  of  all  of  this  work  is  an 
obligation  which  the  Republic  of  Panama  assumes  and  will  repay 
to  the  United  States  with  interest,  through  water  rates  which  are 
collected  directly  by  the  United  States  and  turned  into  the  Treas- 
ury. Payments  at  present  are  being  made  at  the  rate  of  $136,000 
per  annum.  The  sanitary  conditions  in  these  two  cities  and  the 
advantages  of  good  pavements  are  an  object  lesson  to  all  travelers 
from  South  and  Central  America  which  is  bearing  its  results,  and 
the  shipments  of  paving  brick  from  the  United  States  to  South 
America  have  increased  as  a  result  of  this  work. 

The  situation  in  the  city  of  Colon  as  regards  ownership  of  land 
is  peculiar.  It  is  practically  all  owned  by  the  Panama  Railroad 
under  its'  original  franchise,  under  the  terms  of  which  ownership 
reverted  to  the  United  States  of  Colombia  at  the  expiration  of 
its  franchise.  This  land,  therefore,  can  not  be  sold  by  the  Panama 
Railroad.  By  the  treaty  of  1904  the  Republic  of  Panama,  as  the 
successor  of  the  Republic  of  Colombia,  transferred  to  the  United 
States  all  of  its  rights  accruing  at  the  expiration  of  this  franchise. 
Meanwhile  the  United  States  had  purchased  the  Panama  Railroad 
from  the  French  Company.  Therefore  the  present  condition  is  that 
the  United  States,  through  the  Panama  Railroad,  is  the  owner  of 
land  in  Colon,  but  can  not,  under  the  railroad's  franchise,  sell  it. 
This  land,  moreover,  which  it  owns,  will,  through  the  expiration 
of  the  franchise  of  the  Panama  Railroad  in  1966,  be  turned  over 
to  the  United  States,  and  the  condition  will  arise  of  one  govern- 
ment owning  land  in  a  foreign  country.  The  land  is  under  the 
jurisdiction  and  laws  of  the  Republic  of  Panama,  as  it  is  not  within 
the  limits  of  the  Canal  Zone.  This  situation,  however,  can  and 
will  be  easily  straightened  out,  and  ultimately  some  disposition 
will  be  made  of  the  property,  which  is  considered  to  be,  even  at 
the  present  time,  very  valuable.  This  land  is  now  leased  by  the 
Panama  Railroad  in  lots  to  the  highest  bidder  for  a  term  of  years. 
Rents  are  high  and  lessees  expect  to  get  returns  of  50  per  cent  and 


THE   ISTHMIAN   CANAL.  15 

upward  per  annum.  The  Panama  Railroad,  through  its  corporate 
powers,  has  proved  a  very  useful  and  necessary  adjunct  in  the 
construction  of  the  canal,  and  it  would  disarrange  and  be  a  great 
hindrance  to  the  work  to  have  its  charter  canceled  before  the  com- 
pletion of  the  canal. 

During  the  period  of  preparation,  work  was  not  neglected  on  the 
canal  excavation,  and  every  effort  was  made  to  make  the  "dirt 
fly.'7  At  first,  the  only  tools  available  were  some  old  French  exca- 
vators, locomotives,  dump  cars,  and  drills.  Modern  American  equip- 
ment, consisting  of  dredges,  steam  shovels,  cars,  locomotives,  etc., 
was  put  into  service  as  fast  as  it  could  be  purchased  and  hurried 
down  to  the  Isthmus.  During  1904,  1905,  and  1906  material  was 
excavated  as  follows: 

Cubic  yards. 

1904 243, 472 

1905 1,  799,  227 

1906 4,  948, 497 

Total 6,  991, 196 

Meanwhile  the  type  of  canal  came  up  again,  and  in  consideration 
of  the  international  importance  of  the  canal  President  Roosevelt 
appointed  a  Board  of  Consulting  Engineers  consisting  of  13  mem- 
bers, including  representatives  of  5  European  countries,  and  8  Amer- 
icans, which  met  in  Washington  in  June,  1905.  Eight  members  of 
this  board,  including  the  five  foreign  engineers,  recommended  that 
a  sea-level  plan  be  adopted.  Five  American  engineers  recommended 
a  lock  canal.  Of  the  eight  in  favor  of  the  sea-level  canal,  one,  an 
American,  stated  that  if  it  were  a  commercial  enterprise  for  a  pri- 
vate company  he  should  vote  for  a  lock  canal.  One  of  the  foreign 
engineers  qualified  his  vote  in  favor  of  the  sea-level  canal,  in  the 
report,  by  stating  that  he  considered  a  high-level  lock  canal  prac- 
ticable, but  that  considerations  of  cost  and  time  of  completion  with 
such  a  canal  should  not  be  taken  as  the  governing  considerations. 
This,  notwithstanding  the  instructions  to  the  board  from  the  Presi- 
dent that  in  addition  to  reporting  on  a  feasible  plan,  the  prime 
consideration  was  the  shortest  time  of  completion  and  a  minimum 
amount  of  work;  that  is,  minimum  cost.  In  strict  accordance  with 
these  instructions  the  vote  would  have  been  7  for  a  lock  canal  and 
6  for  a  sea-level  canal.  The  members  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Com- 


16  THE   ISTHMIAN    CANAL. 

mission,  with  one  exception,  recommended  to  the  President  the 
adoption  of  the  85-foot  level  lock  canal  recommended  by  the  minor- 
ity of  the  Board  of  Consulting  Engineers  and  indorsed  by  the  then 
Chief  Engineer  of  the  Commission,  for  the  following  reasons : 

1.  Its  first  cost  will  be  much  less— nearly  $200,000,000. 

2.  It  will  be  completed  much  more  quickly — fully  six  years. 

3.  Its  cost  of  operation  and  maintenance,  including  fixed  charges, 
will  be  less  by  several  million  dollars  per  annum. 

4.  It  provides  greater  safety  for  ships  and  less  danger  of  interrup- 
tion to  traffic,  by  reason  of  its  wider,  straighter,  and  deeper  channel. 

5.  It  provides  quicker  passage  for  large  ships  and  large  traffic. 
In  his  message  to  Congress  of  February  19,  1906,  forwarding  the 

board's  report  the  President  stated: 

"The  law  now  on  our  statute  books  seems  to  contemplate  a  lock 
canal.  In  my  judgment  a  lock  canal  as  herein  recommended  is 
advisable." 

On  June  29,  1906,  the  construction  of  a  lock  type  of  canal  was 
authorized  by  Congress  in  accordance  with  the  general  plans  of  the 
so-called  minority  of  the  Board  of  Consulting  Engineers  and  the 
work  has  since  been  carried  on  along  these  lines.  During  the  three 
years  which  have  elapsed,  nothing  has  occurred  on  the  work  which 
has  occasioned  uneasiness  on  the  part  of  those  most  intimately  and 
responsibly  concerned  with  the  execution  of  the  work,  or  which  has 
caused  them  to  doubt  either  the  wisdom  of  this  choice  or  the  ultimate 
success  of  the  undertaking;  and  at  this  late  date  with  the  lock  canal 
far  advanced  a  discussion  on  the  relative  merits  of  a  lock  versus  sea- 
level  canal  is  about  as  much  out  of  date  as  a  last  year's  spring  bonnet, 
and  is  as  interesting  and  illuminating  a  subject  of  conversation  for 
those  who  are  well  informed  in  regard  to  canal  work  as  the  weather 
in  Labrador  in  December.  There  is  no  engineering,  commercial,  or 
military  reason  for  considering  a  sea-level  plan  at  this  stage  of  the 
work;  and  those  who  desire  to  discuss  a  dead  issue  like  this,  even 
from  an  academic  standpoint,  should  first  be  required  to  give  a  better 
reason  for  making  a  change  than  one  that  might  suffice  for  the  selec- 
tion of  a  suit  of  clothes  of  a  particular  cut  or  fabric,  but  which  is  not 
sufficient  for  the  people  of  the  United  States  who  have  already  spent 
over  $20,000,000  toward  the  construction  of  locks,  which  would  be 
wasted  were  a  change  to  a  sea-level  canal  now  made.  The  whole 


THE   ISTHMIAN    CANAL.  17 

matter  may  be  summed  up  in  the  quotation  from  President  Roose- 
velt's message  to  Congress  last  winter: 

"That  hereafter  attack  on  this  type,  the  lock  type,  is  in  reality 
merely  attack  upon  the  policy  of  building  any  canal  at  all." 

The  85-foot  lock  canal  which  is  being  built  consists  of  a  sea-level 
entrance  channel  7  miles  long  and  500  feet  wide  on  the  Atlantic  side 
to  the  foot  of  Gatun  locks.  On  the  Pacific  side  there  is  a  corre- 
sponding sea-level  channel  to  Miraflores  nearly  8  miles  long.  For 
15  of  the  50  miles  the  canal  will  be  at  sea  level.  At  Gatun  the  85-foot 
lake  level  is  obtained  by  a  great  dam.  The  lake  is  confined  on  the 
Pacific  side  by  a  smaller  dam  between  the  hills  at  Pedro  Miguel,  32 
miles  away.  These  two  dams  make  a  great  lake  85  feet  above  sea 
level,  with  an  area  of  164  square  miles.  Ships  pass  from  the  sea  level 
to  the  lake  level,  and  vice  versa,  at  Gatun  by  a  series  of  adjoining 
locks,  "in  flight''  as  it  is  called,  three  in  all,  each  with  a  lift  of  28J 
feet.  The  locks  are  in  duplicate.  On  the  Pacific  side  at  Pedro  Miguel, 
instead  of  dropping  down  at  once  to  the  sea  level,  there  is  one  lift, 
with  duplicate  locks,  by  which  vessels  are  lowered  to  a  small  lake 
called  Miraflores  Lake,  which  is  55  feet  above  the  mean  level  of  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  One  mile  from  Pedro  Miguel,  through  Miraflores 
Lake,  are  the  Miraflores  locks,  where  by  two  lifts,  with  locks  in 
duplicate,  vessels  reach  sea  level  on  the  Pacific  side. 

From  deep  water  to  deep  water  the  distance  is  about  50  miles  and 
it  is  expected  that  a  vessel  can  easily  make  the  transit  within  less 
than  twelve  hours. 

The  Atlantic  channel  has  a  depth  of  41  feet  below  mean  sea  level, 
and  the  average  range  of  tides  is  not  over  a  foot.  On  the  Pacific  side 
the  tides  have  a  range  sometimes  as  much  as  20  or  22  feet,  and  in 
order  to  provide  ample  depth  the  channel  is  to  be  dredged  to  a 
depth  of  45  feet  below  mean  sea  level.  The  elevation  of  both  oceans 
is  the  same  at  half  tide.  At  extreme  high  tide,  therefore,  the  Pacific 
Ocean  is  10  feet  above  the  Atlantic  and  at  low  tide  10  feet  below. 

Gatun  Lake  will  be  a  body  of  fresh  water,  and  its  level  will  be 
maintained  at  practically  a  constant  height  by  the  rivers  which  flow 
into  it.  The  principal  river  is  the  Chagres,  which  rises  in  the  hills  to 
the  east  of  the  canal.  It  catches  all  the  rain  which  runs  off  of  an  area 
of  about  1,200  square  miles.  A  second  large  river  is  the  Trinidad, 
which  w^ill  flow  into  the  lake  from  the  west.  The  Trinidad  River  has 
7567—09 3 


18  THE   ISTHMIAN   CANAL. 

a  drainage  area  of  340  square  miles.  Its  headwaters  extend  within 
sight  of  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

Elaborate  investigations  and  observations  have  shown  that  the 
annual  rainfall  is  entirely  sufficient  to  keep  the  lake  amply  supplied. 
The  rainfall  averages  100  inches  per  annum,  varying  from  120  to  140 
inches  on  the  Atlantic  side  to  60  to  80  inches  on  the  Pacific.  The 
rainy  season  extends  from  April  to  December,  during  which  time 
practically  all  of  the  rain  falls.  From  January  to  April  there  is  little 
or  no  rain. 

Evaporation  will  be  one  source  of  loss  of  water  from  Gatun  Lake 
and  averages  not  far  from  one-seventh  of  an  inch  per  day,  or  50 
inches  per  annum.  Water  will  be  required  to  pass  vessels  through 
the  locks  and  will  also  be  used,  so  far  as  available,  in  generating 
electric  current  for  use  in  lighting,  in  furnishing  power  for  canal 
operations,  and  for  the  future  operation  of  the  Panama  Railroad. 
This  will  be  accomplished  by  installing  a  hydro-electric  plant  at 
Gatun,  and  making  available  the  energy  due  to  the  85  feet  head  of 
water.  Any  surplus  water  will  be  disposed  of  by  allowing  it  to  flow 
over  a  spillway,  which  is  merely  a  large  waste- weir. 

In  steaming  through  Gatun  Lake,  from  Gatun  to  Pedro  Miguel,  a 
distance  of  32  miles,  vessels  will  traverse  a  channel  varying  from 
1,000  to  300  feet  in  width  and  from  75  to  45  feet  in  depth.  For  the 
first  8  miles  no  digging  is  necessary,  the  natural  elevation  of  the 
ground  being  so  low  that  it  is  only  necessary  to  clear  the  ground  of 
trees  and  underbrush. 

At  Bohio  there  are  a  few  high  points  to  level  off,  and  some  of 
this  work  is  being  done  by  "task  work"  with  pick  and  shovel.  The 
thousand-foot  channel  continues  for  15  miles  from  Gatun,  enabling 
vessels  to  maintain  full  speed. 

Toward  Tabernilla  the  banks  of  the  Chagres  River  and  the  adja- 
cent land  to  be  used  as  the  canal  channel  rise  above  elevation  +40. 
The  ground  will  be  excavated  to  that  elevation  in  order  that  the 
depth  of  water  in  the  entire  channel  may  not  be  less  than  45  feet. 
From  Tabernilla  the  channel  continues  800  feet  wide  for  4  miles,  and 
thence  to  Bas  Obispo  500  feet  wide  for  a  distance  of  about  4  miles. 
Many  million  cubic  yards  were  excavated  by  the  French  between 
Tabernilla  and  Bas  Obispo  which  will  be  useful  in  the  present  proj- 
ect. Between  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  Tabernilla  none  of  the 


THE   ISTHMIAN    CANAL.  19 

French  excavation  enters  into  or  is  useful  to  the  present  plan  except 
for  construction  purposes. 

Between  Tabernilla  and  Bas  Obispo  the  Chagres  River,  pursuing 
its  winding  course,  crosses  the  line  of  the  canal  not  less  than  15  time*. 
At  Bas  Obispo  the  Chagres  River  turns  abruptly  to  the  northeast 
and  the  canal  enters  the  9-mile  cut  through  the  Cordilleras,  which 
form  the  backbone  of  the  continent,  where  the  greatest  amount  of 
excavation  is  being  done,  and  which  is  generally  known  as  "Culebra 
cut."  This  cut  ends  at  the  Pedro  Miguel  locks.  The  minimum 
bottom  width  of  the  canal  prism  is  300  feet  and  the  depth  of 
water  will  be  45  feet.  In  general,  the  line  follows  the  old  French 
canal  in  this  section,  which  took  its  course  up  the  valley  of  the 
Obispo  River  to  the  deepest  part  of  the  cut  at  Gold  Hill,  whence 
it  entered  and  descended  the  Pacific  slope  along  the  line  of  the  Rio 
Grande  River. 

At  Gold  Hill,  near  Culebra,  the  highest  point  on  the  center  line  of 
the  canal,  the  elevation  was  333  feet  on  the  axis  of  the  French  canal, 
312  feet  on  the  present  axis  (80  feet  to  the  west),  and  303  feet  at  the 
low  point  of  the  saddle  or  depression  between  Gold  Hill  on  the  east  and 
Contractor's  Hill  on  the  west.  The  French  began  cutting  through 
Gold  Hill  on  the  east  side  of  the  canal  at  elevation  534,  which  is  the 
highest  elevation  where  work  was  carried  on.  In  this  section  of  nearly 
9  miles  the  French  removed  with  their  comparatively  small  excavat- 
ing machines  and  by  pick  and  shovel  over  24,000,000  yards  of 
material,  most  of  which  is  useful  in  the  present  plan,  including  a 
large  amount  of  soft  overlying  earth  and  clay.  The  present  plans 
call  for  the  removal  of  about  89,600,000  cubic  yards  between  Gatuii 
and  Pedro  Miguel,  of  which  77,700,000  is  in  "Culebra  cut,"  in  addi- 
tion to  what  the  French  took  out;  35,700,000  yards  had  been 
removed  from  Culebra  cut  to  August  1,  1909. 

The  end  of  Gatun  Lake  is  reached  at  Pedro  Miguel  locks.  Mira- 
flores  Lake  is  a  small  body  of  water  of  less  than  2  square  miles  in  area, 
which  is  kept  full  by  water  entering  with  vessels  through  the  Pedro 
Miguel  locks,  and  also  from  water  from  the  Rio  Grande  and  Cocoli 
rivers,  which  flow  into  it.  A  spillway  is  located  to  the  east  of  the 
Mirafiores  locks  to  dispose  of  any  overflow.  After  passing  through 
Miraflores  locks  vessels  have  a  straight  channel  8  miles  in  length  to 
the  Pacific. 


20  THE   ISTHMIAN    CANAL. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  the  present  plan  provides  broad,  deep  channels, 
with  a  minimum  of  curves  and  bends. 

The  average  width  of  channel  will  be  about  650  feet,  about  three 
times  as  wide  as  the  average  width  of  the  sea-level  canal  as  proposed 
and  estimated  on,  at  much  greater  cost.  The  minimum  bottom 
width  of  the  channel  will  be  300  feet  through  Culebra  cut.  The 
width  for  the  sea-level  canal  in  earth  was  intended  to  be  only  150  feet 
with  sloping  sides,  and  200  feet  in  rock  through  Culebra  cut  with 
vertical  sides. 

The  principal  advantages  derived  from  the  raised  lake  level  formed 
by  dams  at  Gatun  and  Pedro  Miguel  are: 

(1)  The  amount  of  excavation  is  enormously  reduced,  and  the 
cost  and  time  correspondingly  diminished,  even  when  the  cost  of  the 
dams  and  locks  is  considered. 

(2)  Another  most  important  advantage,  and  in  fact  a  necessity,  is 
the  ease  with  which  the  rainy  season  floods  of  the  Chagres  and  other 
rivers  will  be  controlled  by  Gatun  Lake.     The  dams  at  Gatun  and 
Pedro  Miguel  will  raise  the  water  sufficiently  to  cause  the  lake  to 
extend  4  or  5  miles  above  Gamboa.     The  Chagres  River  in  the  dry 
season  is  a  peaceful,  insignificant  stream,  at  Gamboa  not  over  300 
feet  wide,  and  2  or  3  feet  deep.     As  a  result  of  the  torrential  rainfall 
and  the  precipitous  nature  of  the  watershed,  especially  in  its  upper 
reaches,  it  is  subject  to  large  and  rapid  variations  in  height.     At 
Gamboa  the  maximum  rise  has  been  nearly  40  feet  within  a  period 
of   twenty-four   hours,   which   transforms   it   into   a   rapid,   riotous 
stream,  and  it  many  times  overflows  its  banks  and  floods  the  sur- 
rounding country.     The  maximum  discharge  recorded  is  considerably 
more  than  100  times  as  great  as  the  low-water  discharge  during  the 
dry  season.     Gatun  Lake  will  curb  the  floods  of  the  Chagres,  and  the 
severest  storm  will  have  no  more  effect  than  to  raise  its  level  a  foot 
or  two. 

(3)  A  third  advantage  is  that  a  large  portion  of  the  silt  and  gravel 
which  would  be  otherwise  carried  down  into  the  canal  past  Gamboa 
will  be  deposited,   owing  to  the  slackening  of  the  current,   above 
Gamboa,  outside  of  the  canal  prism. 

By  thus  damming  the  outlet  of  the  Chagres,  the  formation  of 
Gatun  Lake  will  provide  the  simplest,  most  practicable,  and  most 
desirable  solution  of  the  most  perplexing  engineering  problem  arising 
in  connection  with  the  construction  of  the  canal. 


THE   ISTHMIAN    CANAL.  21 

The  Atlantic  and  Pacific  entrances  of  the  canal  will  be  fully  pro- 
tected, on  the  Atlantic  side  by  a  stone  breakwater  2  miles  long  in 
44  feet  of  water  at  the  outer  end,  extending  northeastward  from 
Toro  Point  Light-House.  The  entrance  channel  will  be  likewise 
protected  on  the  east  side  by  a  similar  breakwater  about  three- 
quarters  of  a  mile  in  length.  The  construction  of  these  breakwaters 
has  not  yet  been  undertaken,  as  it  was  not  fully  decided  until  last 
February  that  they  would  be  necessary.  During  the  winter  months 
occasional  storms  from  the  north  occur,  locally  termed  " northers," 
of  such  violence  that  all  vessels  have  to  leave  Colon  harbor,  which  is 
at  present  unprotected.  Such  storms,  in  the  absence  of  breakwaters, 
would  render  entrance  to  and  egress  from  the  canal  unsafe.  The 
breakwaters  will  also  provide  a  safe  harbor  and  protect  the  channel 
from  shoaling. 

The  Pacific  side  is  never  visited  with  any  storms  of  sufficient 
duration  and  violence  to  require  any  special  protection.  The  water  is 
quite  shallow  for  some  distance  from  the  shore,  and  the  set  of  the 
current  from  the  northeast  is  at  right  angles  to  the  entrance  channel 
and  deeply  laden  with  silt;  the  tendency  is  for  large  quantities  to 
settle  in  that  part  of  the  canal  channel,  causing  rapid  deterioration 
of  same.  To  prevent  this  shoaling,  as  well  as  to  dispose  of  a  large 
amount  of  spoil  from  the  Culebra  cut,  a  dike  or  breakwater  is  in  the 
process  of  construction  from  the  mainland  at  Balboa  to  Naos  Island, 
one  of  a  group  of  small  islands  about  4  miles  from  shore.  This  dike 
east  of  the  canal  is  more  than  half  completed,  and  the  benefits  arising 
from  it  in  preventing  the  shoaling  of  the  canal  channel  are  very  marked, 
and  when  it  is  entirely  completed  the  shoaling  resulting  from  these 
cross  currents  will  be  eliminated. 

The  present  roadbed  of  the  Panama  Railroad  will  be  submerged 
for  many  miles  by  Gatun  Lake.  In  order  to  provide  communication 
by  rail  across  the  Isthmus  after  the  completion  of  the  canal,  and 
enable  the  railroad  company  while  it  exists  as  a  corporation  to  comply 
with  the  requirements  of  its  franchise,  the  railroad  is  being  practically 
entirely  rebuilt  on  a  new  location  on  higher  ground  to  the  east  of  the 
canal.  The  cities  of  Colon  and  Panama  being  both  on  that  side,  the 
railroad  will  therefore  not  cross  the  canal.  From  Gatun  the  railroad 
makes  a  wide  circuit  around  Gatun  Lake,  crossing  the  Chagres  River 
on  a  steel  bridge,  over  a  quarter  of  a  mile  in  length,  at  Gamhoa,  and 
passes  through  Culebra  cut  on  a  broad  bench  or  berm  10  feet  above 


22  THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL. 

the  level  of  the  lake.  The  reconstruction  of  the  Panama  Railroad  is 
being  paid  from  a  special  appropriation  for  the  purpose.  It  is  an 
undetermined  matter  how  much  through  business  will  fall  to  the 
Panama  Railroad  after  the  completion  of  the  canal.  The  local 
business  between  the  cities  of  Panama  and  Colon  and  intermediate 
points  should  be  sufficient  in  itself,  however,  for  the  road  to  operate 
without  loss.  It  is  expected  in  time  that  it  will  be  operated  by  elec- 
tricity furnished  from  the  hydro-electric  plant  at  Gatun  spillway. 

Such  is  a  general  description  of  the  plans  recommended  by  the 
minority  of  the  Board  of  Consulting  Engineers  in  1906,  and  these 
plans  have  been  since  followed  throughout  with  such  approved  mod- 
ifications in  details  as  have  been  considered  desirable  to  obtain  the 
best  results  with  the  least  expenditure  of  money.  Among  the  changes 
are  the  following:  The  size  and  capacity  of  the  canal  have  been  in- 
creased in  view  of  the  large  increase  in  size  of  war  vessels  which  has 
recently  taken  place.  This  applies  to  the  change  in  width  and  length 
of  locks  from  95  by  900  to  110  by  1,000  feet;  and  the  width  of  channel 
from  200  to  300  feet  through  a  large  portion  of  Culebra  cut.  The  loca- 
tion of  the  breakwaters  on  the  Atlantic  side  has  been  changed.  Like- 
wise, from  considerations  of  military  defense  and  lessened  cost,  the 
Pacific  locks  have  been  moved  inward  from  Balboa  to  Miraflores. 
This  latter  change  was  suggested  in  the  report  of  the  original  board 
as  being  among  those  which  should  receive  consideration.  Every 
step  in  the  construction  has  been  carefully  watched  and  studied  not 
only  by  those  on  the  ground  who  are  responsible  for  its  execution, 
but  in  addition  thereto  committees  of  the  most  distinguished  engi- 
neers in  the  country  have  at  various  times  made  independent  investi- 
gations on  the  ground  and  reports  on  particular  points  connected 
with  the  construction  of  locks  and  dams.  The  reports  of  these  inde- 
pendent consulting  engineers,  in  expressing  the  unanimous  opinions 
of  their  members,  have  indorsed  in  every  respect  the  present  plans. 

The  present  Isthmian  Canal  Commission  assumed  office  in  April, 
1907,  and  has  since  been  located  on  the  Isthmus  in  direct  contact 
with  the  work,  taking  it  up  where  the  labors  of  Mr.  John  F.  Stevens, 
as  Chairman  and  Chief  Engineer,  left  off. 

As  at  present  constituted  it  numbers  five  engineers,  v.  ith  two  other 
members  acting  as  heads  of  the  departments  of  Civil  Administration 
ind  Sanitation,  respectively. 


THE   ISTHMIAN    CANAL.  23 

The  operation  of  the  Panama  Railroad  Company  is  under  the 
immediate  charge  of  a  General  Manager.  All  of  the  work  of  the 
Commission  and  the  Panama  Railroad  Company  is  under  the  com- 
plete and  direct  control  of  the  Chairman  and  Chief  Engineer  of  the 
Commission,  which  has  contributed  very  largely  to  the  efficiency 
and  the  smooth,  steady  progress  of  the  work. 

The  plan  of  organization  of  the  Engineering  Department  divides 
all  construction  work  into  three  geographical  districts,  each  under 
a  Division  Engineer  with  full  control  over  and  responsibility  for  all 
engineering  work  in  his  district.  These  divisions  are: 

(1)  The  Atlantic  division,  extending  from  deep  water  to  Gatun 
Lake,  including  the  Gatun  locks  and  dam. 

(2)  The  Central  division,  extending  from  Gatun  to  Pedro  Miguel. 

(3)  The  Pacific  division,  extending  from  Pedro  Miguel  to  deep 
water  in  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

In  general,  the  work  may  be  divided  into  three  classes : 

(1)  Wet  excavation,  viz,  excavation  performed  by  dredges.     This 
amounts  to  about  12  per  cent  of  the  total  work. 

(2)  Dry  excavation.     This  includes  all  material  (rock  and  earth) 
removed  by  steam  shovels  and  other  power  excavators,  or  by  pick 
and  shovel.     This  comprises  49  per  cent  of  the  work. 

(3)  The  third  class  of  work  covers  the  construction  of  locks,  dams, 
and  spillways.     The  dams  make  the  lakes,  the  locks  enable  vessels 
to  pass  from  the  sea  level  to  the  lake  level,  or  vice  versa,  and  the 
spillways  take  care  of  the  overflow  from  the  lakes.     These  comprise 
39  per  cent  of  canal  construction  work. 

A  brief  description  of  the  different  classes  of  work  will  be  given: 
(1)  Wet  or  dredging  excavation  amounts  to  about  73,000,000 
cubic  yards.  One  million  yards  is  contained  in  a  cube  300  feet  on 
each  side;  73,000,000  would  be  equivalent  to  a  cube  measuring  about 
a  quarter  of  a  mile  on  one  side.  It  consists  of  soft  silt,  earth,  clay, 
coral,  and  hard  rock.  From  12  to  14  dredges  are  kept  at  work,  and 
their  monthly  output  is  not  far  from  1,300,000  cubic  yards.  They 
include  two  new  seagoing  suction  dredges,  the  Culebra  and  Caribbean 
of  a  type  common  in  the  United  States,  that  draw  the  material  up 
into  bins  in  their  own  hulls  by  centrifugal  pumps.  When  these  bins 
are  full,  they  steam  to  the  dumping  grounds,  empty  by  opening  bot- 
tom gates,  and  return  for  another  load.  These  dredges  work  night 


24  THE   ISTHMIAN   CANAL. 

and  day,  stopping  only  for  fuel  and  repairs.  Owing  to  their  method 
of  operation  and  the  material  they  handle,  they  have  the  largest  out- 
put at  the  least  unit  cost  of  any  of  the  dredges.  Upon  the  completion 
of  the  canal  it  is  expected  that  these  dredges  will  be  kept  on  the 
Isthmus  for  use  on  any  small  amounts  of  dredging  that  might  be 
required  for  maintenance  work. 

Seven  old  French  ladder  dredges  of  Scotch  and  Belgian  make 
which  have  been  rebuilt  are  giving  very  satisfactory  service  in 
spite  of  the  small  size  of  their  buckets  (one-half  yard  capacity 
each)  compared  with  the  size  of  dredges  now  built.  The  output  of 
these  is  hardly  half  that  of  the  seagoing  suction  dredges.  These 
ladder  dredges  discharge  the  spoil  by  chutes  into  self-propelling 
French  barges  called  "clapets,"  and  American  scows  which  are 
towed  to  the  dumping  ground  by  tugs.  Thirteen  French  clapets 
and  a  half  dozen  barges  serve  the  stationary  dredges  with  the  aid 
of  4  tugs.  There  are  also  3  dipper  dredges  and  several  clam-shell 
dredges  with  5-yard  buckets,  and  1  Lobnitz  rock-breaker  consisting 
of  a  large  ram  mounted  on  a  barge  of  suitable  size,  wiiich  is  used  to 
fracture  and  break  up  the  rock  on  the  bottom,  which  can  then  be 
easily  removed  by  dipper  or  clam-shell  dredges.  Three  sizes  of  rams 
are  used,  weighing  from  10  to  19  tons  and  from  30  to  50  feet  in  length. 
When  raised  from  4  to  10  feet  above  the  water  and  then  dropped, 
they  break  the  rock  to  a  depth  of  3  feet.  Experience  with  this 
rock  breaker  has  not  demonstrated  its  superiority  or  economy  as 
compared  with  subaqueous  blasting. 

The  construction  of  the  Gatun  dam  and  locks  also  requires  pipe- 
line suction  dredges  and  a  large  transportation  equipment. 

To  rebuild,  operate,  and  repair  the  fleet  of  vessels  required  to 
carry  on  dredging  and  transportation  operations,  the  old  French 
shops  at  Cristobal  and  Balboa  have  been  remodeled,  enlarged,  and 
supplied  with  such  new  and  improved  equipment  as  has  been  found 
necessary  to  perform  the  required  work.  To  make  under-water 
repairs  and  to  scrape  and  paint  the  exterior  of  the  hulls,  the  French 
had  an  old  dry  dock  cut  out  of  the  solid  rock  at  their  shops  at  Cris- 
tobal. This  dock  has  been  rebuilt  and  enlarged  and  lined  with  con- 
crete and  now  is  capable  of  docking  a  vessel  298  feet  long,  50  feet 
beam,  and  15  feet  draft.  Spanning  the  dock  is  a  Gantry  or  movable 
overhead  crane.  Several  hundred  men  are  employed  at  these  shops. 


THE  ISTHMIAN   CANAL.  25 

Vegetable  and  animal  life  in  these  tropical  waters  are  particularly 
active  in  attacking  the  hulls  of  vessels,  making  it  necessary  to  dock 
and  paint  them  at  frequent  intervals. 

On  the  Pacific  side,  the  Balboa  shops  perform  the  same  offices  for 
the  Pacific  fleet  at  work  on  that  part  of  the  channel.  There  is  no 
dry  dock  on  that  side,  and  a  marine  railway  is  used  for  the  small 
vessels.  Advantage  is  also  taken  of  the  large  range  of  the  tides, 
which  permits  a  vessel  to  be  placed  on  a  " gridiron"  at  Balboa  at 
high. tide;  the  tide  receding  lifts  the  vessel  out  of  the  water  and  per- 
mits any  work  to  proceed  which  can  be  accomplished  before  the 
next  high  tide.  For  vessels  like  the  seagoing  dredge  Culebm,  it  has 
been  customary  to  run  them  broadside  on  the  smooth  sandy  beach 
at  Naos  Island  at  high  tide,  where  they  can  be  painted  and  repaired 
as  the  tide  lowers. 

In  the  Pacific  division,  from  the  foot  of  Miraflores  Lake  southward 
about  2  miles,  there  are  about  11,300,000  cubic  yards  of  material, 
mostly  dark  loam,  overlying  1,600,000  cubic  yards  of  hard  rock, 
which  will  have  to  be  removed.  Successive  attempts  with  dredges 
have  shown  that  it  is  not  practicable  to  handle  the  material  overlying 
the  hard  rock  by  this  method  with  as  great  economy  as  by  adopting 
the  hydraulic  method  which  has  been  developed  and  used  with  such 
success  in  the  western  States.  It  is  proposed  by  this  plan  after 
throwing  a  dam  across  the  channel,  2  miles  below  the  locks,  to 
attack  the  material  with  large  jets  of  water  under  sufficient  pressure 
to  break  it  up  and  carry  it  to  pools  or  sumps,  whence  the  combined 
water  and  material  will  be  removed  by  powerful  centrifugal  pumps 
having  a  capacity  of  30,000  gallons  per  minute. 

(2)  Dry  excavation. — To  the  casual  visitor  to  the  Isthmus,  opera- 
tions in  connection  with  dry  excavation  are  the  most  spectacular 
and  interesting  of  any  work  in  progress.  The  methods  are  some- 
what similar  to  those  in  use  in  the  United  States,  but  nowhere  else 
in  the  world  have  excavating  operations  been  carried  on  on  such  a 
large  scale  and  in  the  precise  manner  followed  on  the  Isthmus. 
Some  of  the  machines  used  have  been*  developed  as  a  result  of  the 
experience  gained  on  the  work.  The  construction  of  the  locks  involves 
in  itself  a  large  amount  of  excavation — about  10,000,000  cubic  yards. 
This  may  be  considered  a  part  of  the  lock  construction,  and  dry  exca- 
vation under  this  head  will  be  limited  to  the  prism  proper.  About 
7567—09 4 


26  THE   ISTHMIAN   CANAL. 

93,000,000  cubic  yards  are  involved,  equivalent  to  a  cube  measuring 
about  1,380  feet,  or  over  quarter  of  a  mile  on  a  side,  or  sufficient  to 
cover  90  square  miles  with  a  layer  1  foot  thick.  Forty-four  million 
yards,  or  about  47  per  cent  of  this  work,  had  been  accomplished  to 
August  1,  1909.  Dry  excavation  is  carried  on  almost  exclusively 
with  steam  shovels,  and  at  the  present  time  about  all  of  the  soft 
overlying  material  has  been  removed,  and  the  rock  remaining 
requires  blasting  before  it  can  be  loaded  on  the  cars.  The  present 
method  of  work  is  the  result  of  three  years'  experience.  From  50  to 
60  steam  shovels  are  being  worked  on  the  prism  excavation  with  dip- 
pers varying  in  capacity  from  2J  to  5  cubic  yards.  The  other  shovels 
are  engaged  on  the  lock  and  dam  excavation  at  the  rock  quarries  and 
on  the  Panama  Railroad.  The  work  is  divided  up  into  sections,  the 
work  in  each  section  being  under  a  superintendent  who  is  responsible 
for  all  the  work  therein,  and  who  is  held  strictly  accountable  for  the 
daily  output  in  his  section. 

The  work  accomplished  in  Culebra  cut  by  the  French,  in  general, 
was  to  make  a  deep,  narrow  cut,  and  in  1904  the  summit  near  Gold 
Hill  was  193  feet  above  sea  level,  having  been  reduced  140  feet  by 
the  French,  and*  an  additional  cut  of  153  feet  was  necessary.  The 
first  work  undertaken  by  the  Americans  was  to  widen  the  cut  to 
full  dimensions  before  going  any  deeper.  The  work  accomplished 
to  date  has  consisted  of  this  widening,  and  in  addition  the  old 
summit  level  at  Gold  Hill  has  been  lowered  to  elevation  +120. 
At  the  ends  of  Culebra  cut  (Bas  Obispo  and  Pedro  Miguel)  the 
excavation  has  been  practically  completed  to  the  full  depth — 
elevation  +40.  At  the  present  summit  level  at  Empire  the  cut 
will  be  made  85  feet  deeper.  For  the  purpose  of  drainage,  the 
bottom  slopes  uniformly  north  and  south  from  the  summit,  23 
feet  per  mile  to  the  north  and  36  feet  per  mile  to  the  south. 
Loaded  trains  pass  down  grade  each  way  from  the  summit  on 
their  way  to  the  dumps.  The  present  line  of  the  Culebra  cut 
traverses  what  was  originally  the  valleys  of  the  Obispo,  Rio 
Grande,  and  other  rivers  which  drain  the  surrounding  country.  To 
prevent  the  flooding  of  the  cut  and  interruptions  to  the  work, 
as  well  as  to  reduce  the  wash  of  the  banks,  the  canal  channel  has 
been  paralleled  on  each  side  from  Gold  Hill  north  to  Bas  Obispo, 
a  distance  of  about  5  miles,  by  smaller  artificial  channels  or  canals, 


THE   ISTHMIAN   CANAL.  27 

called  technically  "  diversions/'  which  turn  aside  and  convey  into  the 
Chagres,  at  Gamboa,  on  the  east  side  of  the  canal,  and  at  Matachin, 
on  the  west  side,  the  storm  waters  that  would  otherwise  flood  Culebra 
cut  north  of  the  continental  divide.  The  construction  of  these 
diversion  channels  would  usually  be  considered  work  of  more 
than  ordinary  size.  The  Obispo  diversion  has  a  bottom  width  of 
50  feet,  is  5£  miles  long,  and  extends  from  Gold  Hill  on  the  south 
to  the  Chagres  River  on  the  north.  It  was  completed  two  months 
ago,  and  involved  the  removal  of  over  1,000,000  cubic  yards  of 
material.  The  deepest  cut  was  about  95  feet;  1J  miles  of  earth 
dikes  were  constructed.  The  diversion  has  been  designed  to  carry 
a  maximum  flow  of  6,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  On  the  west 
side  of  the  canal  there  is  a  similar  smaller  diversion,  from  Empire 
north  to  beyond  Bas  Obispo,  in  which  the  storm  waters  flow  partly 
through  a  natural  channel,  partly  through  an  artificial  channel  built 
by  the  Americans,  and  also  through  an  old  French  tunnel  and 
channel  at  Bas  Obispo.  To  the  south  of  Gold  Hill  the  drainage 
from  the  west,  including  the  overflow  of  the  Rio  Grande  reservoir, 
is  carried  off  in  the  bed  of  the  Rio  Grande  River  and  an  old  French 
diversion  channel.  The  remainder  flows  from  the  east  into  the 
cut  and  will  be  permitted  to  flow  through  the  Pedro  Miguel  locks 
as  soon  as  the  floors  are  laid;  meanwhile  it  runs  through  an  old 
culvert  under  the  abandoned  railroad  to  the  west  of  the  locks,  which 
has  been  lowered  sufficiently  to  effect  this.  At  the  north  end  of 
the  cut  the  low-water  level  of  the  Chagres  River  is  at  elevation  43 
and  of  the  finished  canal  3  feet  lower,  viz  +40.  The  Chagres  River 
has  been  shut  off  by  a  dike  with  drain  pipes  at  different  elevations, 
which  will  free  the  cut  from  water  by  gravity  in  case  the  dike  is 
overflowed.  Under  ordinary  working  conditions  three  large  pumps 
will  remove  the  water. 

At  various  points  along  the  banks  of  the  Culebra  cut  the  excessive 
rainfall  and  the  character  and  slope  of  the  material  results  in  the 
movement  of  soft  material  on  layers  of  slippery  clay.  These  moving 
masses  of  material  are  called  "  slides. V  All  estimates  and  calcula- 
tions for  work  have  provided  for  the  removal  of  a  considerable 
amount  of  material  which  thus  slips  into  the  prism.  The  best 
known  slide  is  the  Cucaracha  slide,  just  south  of  Gold  Hill,  which 
has  been  a  source  of  annoyance  since  the  days  of  the  French,  in  1884. 


28  THE   ISTHMIAN   CANAL. 

It  was  then  800  feet  in  length  and  covered  an  area  of  about  6  acres 
It  has  since  extended  until  the  material  involved  is  about  one-half 
a  mile  long  and  covers  an  area  of  about  27  acres.  Over  700,000 
cubic  yards  are  in  motion.  In  1907  the  maximum  movement  was 
14  feet  in  twenty-four  hours.  This  movement  turned  over  a  steam 
shovel  and  buried  another.  One  hundred  and  thirteen  thousand 
cubic  yards,  with  a  glacier-like  motion,  moved  into  and  across  the 
cut,  completely  filling  it  up  for  the  time  being.  The  French  tried 
elaborate  drainage  systems,  which  proved  inadequate.  Removal  of 
the  material  is  the  only  effective  remedy.  There  have  been  during 
the  past  year  slides  at  thirteen  different  points  and  884,000  cubic 
yards  of  material  have  been  removed;  about  1,000,000  cubic  yards 
are  still  in  motion  and  will  eventually  have  to  be  handled.  While 
annoying,  and  in  themselves  of  some  importance,  when  compared 
with  canal  operations  as  a  whole,  these  slides  dwarf  into  insignifi- 
cance, and  will  affect  the  total  amount  and  cost  of  the  work  by 
less  than  1  per  cent.  All  the  banks  stand  up  well,  and  it  is  the 
shallow  top  layer  of  soft  earth  and  disintegrated  rock  that  is  causing 
the  trouble.  Undoubtedly  before  the  canal  is  completed  these 
banks  will  be  so  covered  with  tropical  vegetation  as  to  be  perma- 
nently held  in  place. 

The  various  excavating  operations  are  successively  as  follows: 
Drilling,  blasting,  loading,  transporting,  and  dumping. 

Tripod  drills  are  used  for  shallow  holes;  well  or  churn  drills  for  the 
deeper  holes;  and  hand  drilling  only  for  a  few  isolated  holes.  Com- 
pressed air  furnishes  the  power  to  the  drills  at  80  pounds  pressure. 
Each  shovel  is  preceded  by  a  battery  of  from  4  to  12  drills,  covering 
a  field  from  30  to  40  feet  wide,  which  keeps  well  ahead  of  the  shovel. 
Holes  are  drilled  from  15  to  30  feet  deep  and  from  6  to  16  feet  apart, 
depending  upon  the  material  and  conditions.  Each  hole  is  loaded 
with  a  charge  of  from  75  to  200  pounds  of  dynamite,  45  and  60  per  cent 
dynamite  being  used  principally.  One  million  pounds  of  dynamite  are 
being  used  monthly.  After  being  loaded,  the  holes  are  connected  up 
in  parallel  and  discharged  by  electric  current.  While  the  greatest  care 
practicable  is  taken  in  all  operations  connected  with  the  handling  of 
dynamite,  a  number  of  accidents  have  occurred  and  a  number  of  lives 
have  been  lost,  mostly  alien  laborers.  The  most  serious  explosion 
occurred  at  Bas  Obispo  last  December  and  resulted  in  24  deaths, 


THE  ISTHMIAN   CANAL.  29 

most  of  them  laborers.  It  was  a  premature  explosion  of  22  tons  of 
dynamite,  loaded  in  53  holes.  The  cause  of  the  explosion  has 
remained  obscure.  One  theory  was  that  the  water  in  the  holes 
being  slightly  acid  tended  to  liberate  the  nitroglycerine,  which 
being  in  [an  extremely  unstable  condition  exploded  from  some 
small  shock  or  vibration  due  possibly  to  a  distant  shot  or  blast. 
Some  of  these  holes  had  been  loaded  several  days  before  the  ex- 
plosion. In  order  to  be  on  the  safe  side  no  holes  are  loaded 
now  which  can  not  be  fired  the  same  day.  The  large  blasts 
break  the  rock  into  fragments  small  enough  to  be  handled  by 
the  steam  shovels.  Any  large  pieces  are  broken  into  smaller 
fragments  after  the  main  blast  by  what  are  called  "dobie"  blasts, 
consisting  of  a  small  quantity  of  dynamite  laid  on  the  surface  of  the 
rock,  covered  with  clay,  and  discharged  by  fuse.  During  the  first 
operations  black  powder  was  tried  and  discarded.  During  the 
greater  part  of  the  year  the  holes  when  loaded  are  full  of  water. 
Power  to  run  the  drills  is  furnished  by  one  of  the  largest  air  plants 
and  longest  supply  mains  in  the  world.  A  10-inch  air  main  runs 
the  full  length  of  the  cut,  9J  miles,  with  an  extension  at  the  south 
end  to  Miraflores.  To  equalize  the  pressure,  compressors  are  located 
at  three  points,  one  near  each  end  of  the  line,  at  Las  Cascadas  and 
Kio  Grande,  respectively,  and  one  near  the  center  at  Empire.  Each 
of  these  plants  has  four  compressors  of  a  capacity  of  2,500  cubic 
feet  to  100  pounds  pressure  per  minute,  or  30,000  cubic  feet  per 
minute  in  all.  It  will  be  necessary  to  install  two  additional  com- 
pressors on  account  of  the  greater  proportion  of  rock  that  is  now 
encountered. 

The  smaller  size  steam  shovels  weigh  70  tons  and  have  2J-yard 
dippers,  and  the  large  size  shovels  95  tons  and  are  equipped  with 
4  and  5  yard  dippers.  They  are  self-propelling  and  are  able  to 
make  a  cut  over  20  feet  deep.  There  are  100  in  all.  In  working 
down  from  one  level  to  the  next  lower  level  it  is  customary  to  start 
shovels  at  different  points  to  dig  the  center  trench,  called  the  "  pilot 
cut/7  which  is  34  feet  wide  at  the  bottom,  50  feet  at  the  top,  and  from 
15  to  20  feet  deep.  These  pilot  shovels  are  followed  up  by  shovels 
widening  the  cut  on  each  side,  each  taking  26J-foot  slices.  The 
great  problem  is  to  keep  the  shovels  supplied  with  cars,  so  that  they 
can  work  continuously;  under  the  best  of  circumstances,  owing  to 


30  THE   ISTHMIAN    CANAL. 

repairs,  accidents,  and  delays  due  to  moving  the  shovel  forward, 
as  well  as  waiting  for  cars,  etc.,  it  is  not  possible  to  keep  the  shovels 
working  more  than  two-thirds  of  the  time.  During  the  past  two 
years  the  average  output  per  shovel  has  increased  over  50  per  cent. 
In  March,  1909,  the  shovels  in  the  Central  division  averaged  nearly 
36,000  yards  for  the  month.  The  largest  monthly  record  for  one 
shovel  was  made  in  October,  1908,  when  a  shovel  loaded  58,483 
cubic  yards.  The  largest  day's  record  was  in  February,  1909,  when 
during  eight  hours  one  shovel  excavated  3,941  cubic  yards,  which  is 
equivalent  to  the  work  of  over  600  men.  There  is  great  rivalry 
between  the  shovel  engineers  to  make  the  best  record.  The  crew 
of  the  steam  shovel  consists  of  1  engineer  at  $210  per  month,  a 
cranesman  at  $185,  and  a  fireman  at  $83.33 ;  also  from  6  to  10  laborers, 
called  *'  pitmen,"  who  are  kept  busy  moving  the  track  forward  on  which 
the  shovel  runs  and  on  various  other  operations.  The  working  day 
for  the  shovel  is  eight  hours — from  7  to  11  and  from  1  to  5.  At  5 
o'clock  the  various  supply  and  repair  trains  start  out  promptly  from 
the  different  yards  for  the  "cut,"  where  they  spend  the  night  making 
repairs  and  getting  ready  for  the  next  day's  work.  This  consists  in 
supplying  each  shovel  with  a  ton  and  a  half  or  so  of  coal,  with  oil, 
and  other  supplies.  Repair  gangs  are  required  to  make  all  the 
necessary  adjustments  and  repairs  so  that  the  shovel  can  begin  dig- 
ging at  7  o'clock  the  next  morning.  It  is  seldom  now  that  shovels 
have  to  be  taken  into  the  shop  for  general  repairs,  as  a  sufficient 
supply  of  extra  dippers,  booms,  dipper  sticks,  swinging  circles,  and 
other  main  parts  of  the  shovel  are  kept  on  hand,  and  when  a  break- 
down occurs  it  is  only  necessary  to  replace  the  part  in  question  in  the 
field  with  one  of  the  spare  parts. 

The  large  shops  at  Empire,  where  600  men  are  employed,  are  devoted 
to  repairs  of  steam  shovels  and  steam-shovel  parts.  Repair  parts 
are  purchased  in  the  United  States  unless  they  can  be  manufactured 
more  cheaply  on  the  Isthmus. 

The  greater  part  of  the  excavated  material  is  loaded  onto  long,  flat, 
wooden  cars  with  one  high  side,  called  "Lidgerwood  flats."  One 
thousand  eight  hundred  of  these  cars  have  been  purchased.  Originally 
there  were  16  cars  to  the  train.  It  has  since  been  found  practicable 
to  increase  the  number  to  18.  Each  car  has  a  capacity  of  from  18 
to  20  cubic  yards,  or  about  350  cubic  yards  to  the  train,  making  a 
load  of  about  500  tons.  Each  shovel  is  able  on  an  average  to  load 


THE   ISTHMIAN   CANAL.  31 

from  three  to  four  trains  per  day.  From  Empire  south,  trains 
move  down  grade,  coming  out  of  the  cut  on  the  incline  at  Pedro 
Miguel,  and  thence  run  down  to  Miraflores  dump,  or  to  Balboa, 
where  they  dump  into  the  Pacific  to  form  the  breakwater  which  is 
being  extended  to  Naos  Island.  From  Empire  north,  the  trains 
move  down  grade,  coming  out  on  the  main  line  at  Las  Cascadas  or 
Matachin,  or  taking  to  the  relocated  line  on  the  east  side  of  the 
canal  at  Bas  Obispo,  where  the  spoil  is  dumped  on  the  relocated  line 
between  Gamboa  Bridge  and  Caimito.  At  the  present  time  all  hard 
trap  rock  suitable  for  use  in  Gatun  dam  is  being  loaded  onto  trains 
of  from  25  to  30  steel  dump  cars  and  hauled  from  Bas  Obispo  to 
Gatun. 

A  dozen  or  more  dumps  were  maintained  in  former  days.  On 
account  of  the  deepening  of  the  cut  and  from  considerations  of 
economy,  it  has  been  found  desirable  to  concentrate  the  disposition 
of  spoil  in  a  few  large  dumps.  The  dump  at  East  Balboa  requires 
an  11-mile  haul.  At  Miraflores  dump  nearly  4,000,000  yards  have 
been  dumped  within  an  area  of  about  260  acres.  The  largest  dump 
is  at  Tabernilla,  where  10,000,000  yards  have  been  spread  over  an 
area  of  little  less  than  1  square  mile.  The  average  haul  north  is  12 
miles  to  Tabernilla,  5J  miles  on  the  relocated  Panama  Railroad,  and 
25  miles  to  Gatun. 

The  work  requiring  the  largest  number  of  laborers  is  in  moving 
and  ballasting  track.  In  Culebra  cut  alone  there  are  51  miles  of 
track,  and  in  the  whole  Central  division  there  are  194  miles  of  track 
exclusive  of  Panama  Railroad  tracks.  On  an  average  about  1  mile 
of  track  per  day  is  moved  in  Culebra  cut  and  on  the  dumps  in  the 
ordinary  conduct  of  work.  ~'  >, 

One  thousand  one  hundred  all-steel  dump  cars  have  been  purchased 
varying  from  12  to  20  yards  in  capacity.  The  12-yard  cars  are 
dumped  by  hand  and  the  large  steel  cars  are  dumped  by  air.  Over 
650  of  the  small  French  dump  cars  have  been  used  at  various  times, 
and  by  executive  order  the  application  of  the  interstate  commerce 
law  to  the  Isthmus  as  regards  couplers  and  air  brakes,  specially 
excepted  French  dump  cars  for  one  year  from  July  1,  1909,  during 
which  time  their  use  will  be  required.  The  wooden  flat  cars  called 
"Lidgerwoods"  are  unloaded  without  hand  labor  by  a  5-ton  steel 
plow,  to  which  is  attached  a  l^-inch  steel  cable.  The  plow  is  oper- 
ated by  a  Lidgerwood  unloader  capable  of  exerting  a  60-ton  pull, 


32  THE  ISTHMIAN   CANAL. 

which  in  turn  is  operated  by  steam  furnished  from  the  locomotive 
to  which  it  is  attached,  the  plow  being  drawn  forward  by  this  cable 
winding  around  the  drum  of  the  unloader,  and  the  dirt  being  thus 
forced  over  the  side  of  the  cars.  When  working  smoothly  the  train 
is  unloaded  in  five  minutes  and  starts  back  immediately  to  the  cut. 

On  an  average,  the  cars  make  two  round  trips  per  day,  and  in  the 
Central  division  over  200  dirt  trains,  including  both  steel  dump  cars 
and  Lidgerwood  flats,  are  loaded  and  dumped  each  day.  The  ridge 
of  rock  and  earth  which  is  plowed  off  the  cars  is  leveled  by  a  spreader 
which  operates  on  the  same  principle  as  a  snow  plow.  In  moving 
tracks  on  the  dumps,  a  labor-saving  device  called  a  "track  shifter" 
is  employed  which  performs  the  work  of  500  laborers.  It  consists 
of  a  derrick  mounted  on  a  steel  flat  car  with  a  projecting  arm  to 
which  hooks  are  attached,  by  which  a  section  of  the  track  ahead  of 
the  car  is  raised,  after  which,  by  means  of  a  side  arm  carrying  another 
hook,  the  suspended  track  is  moved  over  any  distance  up  to  8  or  9 
feet.  The  usual  throw  of  the  track  is  from  4  to  5  feet. 

Locomotives  are  housed  at  night  in  engine  houses  at  various 
points  along  the  line,  the  principal  ones  being  at  Pedro  Miguel  and 
Las  Cascadas,  where  they  are  coaled  and  given  light  running 
repairs  by  a  night  gang.  Every  morning  they  begin  to  leave  the 
engine  houses  promptly  at  6.30,  and  in  five  minutes  the  30  or  40 
locomotives  have  departed.  One  hundred  and  sixty  large  American 
locomotives  have  been  purchased  by  the  Commission.  In  addition, 
the  Panama  Railroad  has  82  locomotives,  and  about  130  old  French 
locomotives  have  been  repaired  and  put  into  Commission  service. 

The  number  of  cars  in  use  by  the  Commission  is  nearly  4,500,  and 
in  addition  there  are  a  large  number  of  unloaders,  plows,  spreaders, 
track  shifters,  cranes,  pile  drivers,  and  smaller  pieces  of  miscellaneous 
equipment.  Locomotives,  cars,  and  other  equipment,  except  steam 
shovels  are  repaired  at  the  Gorgona  shops,  where  a  force  of  1,000 
men  is  employed.  The  French  company  started  these  shops,  which 
have  since  been  rebuilt  and  enlarged.  An  iron  foundry  and  a  brass 
foundry  are  also  located  at  the  Gorgona  shops. 

GATUN   DAM. 

Due  primarily  to  its  size,  Gatun  dam  has  received  perhaps  more 
than  its  share  of  attention  in  the  United  States.  There  is  nothing 
especially  difficult  or  complicated  about  this  dam,  and  many  dams 


THE   ISTHMIAN    CANAL.  33 

have  been  successfully  built  in  the  United  States  to  withstand  much 
larger  pressures  and  greater  heads  of  water  than  the  Gatun  dam 
without  being  given  one-hundredth  of  the  attention.  Gatun  dam 
fills  the  opening  between  the  hills  at  Gatun,  through  which  the 
Chagres  River  flows  to  the  sea.  It  will  consist  of  a  water-tight 
center  or  core  composed  of  sand  and  clay  mixed  in  proper  propor- 
tion and  deposited  hydraulically ;  that  is,  by  being  pumped  in  by 
dredges.  This  center  core  is  to  be  confined  by  a  rock  wall  on  each 
side.  The  dam  rests  on  impermeable  material  of  sufficient  sup- 
porting power.  The  site  and  the  plans  have  been  examined  by  the 
leading  specialists  in  engineering  construction  of  this  kind  in  the 
United  States,  and  both  the  foundation  and  superstructure  have 
been  pronounced,  without  qualification  or  reservation,  to  be  entirely 
and  absolutely  safe.  The  last  special  engineering  committee  accom 
panied  President-elect  Taft  to  the  Isthmus  in  February,  1909,  aud 
spent  two  weeks  studying  various  canal  matters.  It  thoroughly 
approved  and  indorsed  the  project  as  a  whole  and  in  part.  A  f ex- 
changes in  detail  on  lines  of  economy  which  were  suggested  are 
being  followed. 

The  locks  and  the  spillway  may  be  described  generally  as  appur- 
tenances of  the  dam.  The  spillway  consists  of  a  concrete-lined 
opening  cut  through  a  hill  of  rock  along  the  line  of  the  dam  near 
the  center,  supplied  with  gates  of  suitable  design  to  allow  the  lake 
level  to  be  regulated.  The  locks  are  built  in  an  excavation  at  the 
east  end  of  the  dam,  in  rock,  and  afford  means  for  passing  vessels  in 
and  out  of  the  lake  on  the  Atlantic  side.  They  are  operated  in  the 
manner  usual  for  such  works. 

The  dam  proper  is  about  7,500  feet  long  over  all,  measured  on  its 
crest,  and  for  only  500  feet  of  this  length  will  it  be  subjected  to  a 
pressure  of  85  feet  of  water,  as  the  natural  surface  on  which  it  is 
built  rises  rapidly  after  passing  by  the  old  bed  of  the  Chagres  River. 
For  only  about  half  of  its  length  will  the  head  of  water  on  the  dam 
be  over  50  feet.  Hard  rock  underlies  the  dam  near  the  surface  of 
the  ground  except  for  about  one-quarter  of  its  length,  where  the  rock 
dips  down  to  a  minimum  depth  below  sea  level  of  from  195  feet  in 
the  depression  east  of  the  spillway  to  220  feet  in  that  west  of  the 
spillway.  These  depressions  or  valleys  have  during  past  ages  filled 
up,  and,  measured  from  sea  level  down,  the  first  80  feet  consists  of 


34  THE   ISTHMIAN    CANAL. 

sand  and  clay;  the  next  100  feet  or  so  is  stiff  blue  clay;  the  last  20 
feet  is  a  conglomerate,  composed  of  sand,  shells,  and  stone.  This 
material  is  all  impervious  and  of  sufficient  bearing  capacity  to  sup- 
port the  dam,  and  thus  fulfills  the  essential  requirements.  The 
entire  area  to  be  covered  by  the  dam  and  adjacent  territory  has  been 
probably  more  carefully  examined  by  borings,  test  pits,  etc.,  than 
that  for  any  other  similar  structure. 

The  construction  of  the  dam  is  being  carried  on  by  first  building 
two  lines  of  rock,  composed  of  spoil  from  the  canal  and  lock  exca- 
vation, about  1,200  feet  apart  and  parallel  to  the  center  line  of  the 
dam.  The  south  or  upstream  pile  or  "toe,"  as  it  is  called,  has 
a  height  of  about  60  feet  and  the  downstream  toe  about  30  feet. 
These  rock  toes  confine  the  body  of  the  dam  between  them,  which 
is  to  be  mainly  of  impervious  material  pumped  in  by  dredges.  At 
the  bottom  this  impermeable  core  will  have  a  width  of  about  860 
feet,  outside  of  which  the  body  of  the  dam  will  consist  of  spoil,  which 
can  be  placed  with  the  least  expense.  Outside  of  the  toes  are  the 
waste  piles  for  the  spoil  of  neighboring  excavation.  These  piles  will 
slope  down  gradually  and  extend  indefinitely,  so  far  as  material  is 
available.  The  total  thickness  of  the  dam  at  the  base  between  the 
outer  edges  of  these  waste  piles  will  be  fully  2,000  feet.  The  thick- 
ness of  the  dam  at  the  water  surface,  elevation  plus  85,  will  be  398 
feet.  The  top  of  the  dam  will  be  30  feet  above  the  water  level  and 
have  a  width  of  100  feet.  The  top  and  upstream  slope  will  be  thor- 
oughly riprapped.  At  the  present  time  the  rock  toes  east  of  the  spill- 
way have  been  carried  to  full  height,  and  three  dredges  are  working 
twenty-four  hours  daily  in  pumping  in  impervious  material  to  form 
the  core  between  them.  From  300,000  to  400,000  yards  of  material 
are  handled  by  these  dredges  per  month.  The  spillway  has  a  channel 
300  feet  wide  and  is  designed  for  a  maximum  run-off  of  140,000 
cubic  feet  per  second.  The  concrete  floor  has  been  laid,  and  the  side 
walls  are  well  under  way. 

Last  November,  while  the  south  toe  was  being  constructed  where 
it  crossed  the  old  French  canal  channel,  the  weight  of  the  superim- 
posed rock  on  the  soft  silt  and  mud,  which  had  been  collecting  since 
the  French  stopped  work  twenty  years  ago,  squeezed  the  mud  out  at 
the  bottom  of  the  French  canal,  from  which  the  water  had  just  been 
pumped.  The  crest  of  the  pile  of  rock  slid  down  and  in  for  a  distance 
of  about  200  feet.  The  vertical  movement  was  about  20  feet  at  the 


THE   ISTHMIAN    CANAL.  35 

top,  but  at  the  bottom  of  the  rock  pile  was  only  8  feet.  The  bank 
on  the  south  side  of  the  rock  pile  was  entirely  undisturbed.  Several 
other  slight  movements  had  previously  occurred  without  anything 
being  thought  of  it.  This  local  disturbance,  happening  in  conjunc- 
tion with  a  flood  in  the  Chagres  River,  formed  the  basis  of  the  sen- 
sational stories  which  were  published  in  the  United  States.  This 
happening  caused  no  anxiety  on  the  Isthmus,  and  hardly  passing 
interest. 

GATUN    LOCKS. 

The  excavation  for  the  locks  at  Gatun  is  well  under  way.  Three- 
quarters  of  the  5,500,000  yards  have  been  excavated.  The  excava- 
tion for  the  upper  lock  is  practically  completed,  and  the  mixing  and 
placing  of  concrete  begins  this  month.  The  general  plan  of  the  upper 
locks  may  be  taken  as  typical  of  all  the  locks.  The  locks  are  in  pairs 
each  having  a  width  of  110  feet  and  a  usable  length  of  1,000  feet. 
Each  lock  consists  of  a  chamber,  with  walls  and  bottom  of  concrete, 
and  with  water-tight  gates  at  the  ends.  The  level  of  water  in  the 
locks  is  regulated  through  openings  in  the  bottom,  by  the  operation  of 
valves  in  the  side  and  center  walls,  which  permit  water  to  flow  into  and 
out  of  the  locks  by  gravity.  These  locks  are  the  largest  that  have 
ever  been  designed. 

The  controlling  principles  which  have  been  followed  in  the  design  of 
the  locks  have  been : 

First,  to  make  them  safe,  and  second,  to  make  them  adequate  in 
size  and  arrangement. 

To  attain  the  former,  attention  should  be  particular!}'  directed  to 
five  devices  which  will  be  used.  The  fundamental  principle  has  been 
followed  that  in  all  cases  there  shall  be  at  any  time  not  less  than  two 
barriers  separating  a  high  level  from  that  next  below.  In  carrying 
out  this  principle  there  are  two  gates  at  the  upper  end  and  two  gates 
at  the  lower  end  of  the  upper  lock.  The  double  gates  will  be  oper- 
ated simultaneously.  Another  safety  device  is  a  chain  stretched 
a- TOSS  the  lock  near  the  surface  of  the  water  and  passed  around 
fixed  capstans  on  the  walls.  This  device  is  so  designed  that  by 
the  application  of  fractional  resistance  at  the  proper  varying  rate  it 
will  arrest  a  10,000-ton  vessel  moving  at  a  speed  of  6  miles  an  hour. 
When  not  in  use  it  will  lie  in  a  groove  in  the  lock  floor.  The  results 
of  serious  mishaps  to  the  gates  and  locks  are  guarded  against  by  mov- 


36  THE   ISTHMIAN    CANAL. 

able  dams  above  the  upper  gates.  Each  dam  consists  of  a  swing 
drawbridge  from  which  wicket  girders  can  be  lowered  one  at  a  time, 
the  upper  ends  being  supported  by  the  bridge  and  the  lower  ends  by  a 
sill  in  the  bottom  of  the  entrance.  These  wicket  girders  being  lowered 
in  horizontal  tiers  one  at  a  time  gradually  diminish  the  area  of  the 
waterway.  This  dam  is  so  designed  that  the  flow  of  water  through 
the  locks,  with  the  gates  once  opened,  could  be  checked  in  less  than  an 
hour.  The  safety  devices  already  mentioned,  namely,  twin  locks, 
duplicate  gates,  cable  protection,  and  movable  emergency  dams,  have 
all  been  successfully  tried  separately  on  different  locks  in  this  country 
and  abroad.  In  no  case  has  it  ever  been  deemed  necessary  to  install 
all  of  them  in  the  same  work. 

In  addition,  a  further  safeguard  will  be  adopted  to  minimize  the 
chances  of  accident.  Practically  all  recorded  accidents  to  locks  in 
recent  years  have  occurred  through  some  mistaking  of  signals  between 
the  pilot  house  and  the  engine  room  while  the  vessel  has  beenpassing 
through  locks  under  its  own  steam.  To  obviate  this  source  of  danger, 
it  is  proposed  to  provide  on  the  walls  of  the  locks  electric  locomotives, 
which  under  proper  control  will  tow  vessels  through  the  locks,  there 
being  one  locomotive  on  each  side  of  the  lock  forward  and  astern,  or 
four  in  all,  vessels  not  being  allowed  to  move  their  propellers  mean- 
while. 

The  gates  consist  of  two  leaves  and  are  massive  steel  structures  7 
feet  thick,  65  feet  long,  and  from  47  to  82  feet  high.  They  will  weigh 
from  300  to  600  tons  each.  Eighty-four  leaves  will  be  required  for 
the  entire  canal,  the  total  weighing  43,000  tons.  Intermediate  gates 
will  be  used  in  the  upper  locks  in  order  to  save  water,  if  desired,  in 
locking  small  vessels  through,  the  gates  being  so  fixed  as  to  divide  the 
locks  into  chambers  550  and  350  feet  long,  respectively.  Ninety-five 
per  cent  of  vessels  navigating  the  high  seas  are  less  than  600  feet  long. 

The  adequacy  of  the  water  supply  for  the  demands  of  commerce 
has  never  been  seriously  questioned.  Data  on  this  point  is  available 
from  many  years'  investigations  and  study.  During  three-quarters 
of  the  year  the  rainfall  is  ample.  During  the  remainder  there  is 
practically  no  rainfall,  and  therefore  enough  water  must  be  stored 
during  each  rainy  season  to  carry  over  the  succeeding  dry  season. 
The  advantage  of  the  enormous  storage  capacity  of  Gatun  Lake 
for  this  purpose  is  thus  seen,  and  it  is  intended  to  allow  the  water 


THE  ISTHMIAN   CANAL.  37 

to  rise  in  the  lake  to  elevation +  87  at  the  end  of  each  rainy  season, 
and  it  can  lower  5J  feet  from  this  elevation  without  reducing  the 
depth  through  Culebra  cut  below  that  in  the  sea-level  approach  on 
the  Atlantic  side  at  low  water.  In  other  words,  Gatun  Lake  will, 
during  the  rainy  season,  store  over  5  feet  of  water  that  can  be  used 
during  the  dry  season. 

According  to  conservative  calculations  the  canal  as  designed  will 
have  ample  water  supply  for  as  many  lockages  per  day  as  can  be 
passed  through  the  canal,  which  is  estimated  to  be  48  for  the  twin 
locks.  This  will  amount  to  fully  80,000,000  tons  per  annum,  and  the 
canal  will  not  be  called  upon  to  take  care  of  tonnage  in  excess  of  this 
amount  until  a  very  distant  day.  Should  the  day  ever  come  when 
greater  capacity  is  needed,  other  locks  paralleling  the  present  ones 
could  be  built,  and  the  storage  of  additional  water  to  carry  over  the 
dry  season  could  be  obtained  from  a  dam  at  Alhajuela.  The  tonnage 
passing  through  the  Suez  Canal  is  about  21,000,000  gross  tons  per 
year  and  through  the  Sault  Canal  40,000,000  gross  tons  per  year. 

The  main  culverts,  18  feet  in  diameter,  through  which  the  lock 
chambers  are  filled,  are  located  in  the  walls  and  connect  with  the 
lock  chambers  through  lateral  culverts  opening  upward  through  the 
lock  floors,  which  are  controlled  by  valves  of  the  Stoney  type;  that 
is,  gate  valves  moving  on  rollers  in  frames  to  reduce  friction.  The 
lateral  culverts  which  cross  the  floor  are  72  feet  center  to  center, 
with  openings  18  feet  apart.  By  thus  distributing  the  water  over 
the  entire  floor  of  the  lock,  currents  and  eddies  are  reduced  to  a 
minimum  when  the  lock  ^is  filled  or  emptied  quickly.  The  locks 
can  be  filled  either  from  the  side  culverts  alone,  through  the  mid- 
dle culverts  alone,  or  through  both  together.  With  both  culverts 
turned  on,  the  time  of  filling  the  lock  would  be  a  little  over  eight 
minutes,  or  over  3  feet  per  minute.  It  is  not  expected,  in  the  ordi- 
nary operation  of  the  locks,  to  fill  or  lower  same  in  less  than  about 
fifteen  minutes,  or  at  a  rate  of  about  2  feet  per  minute. 

Electricity  will  be  used  not  only  to  tow  vessels  through  the  locks, 
but  also  to  operate  all  the  gates  and  valves,  power  being  generated 
by  water  turbines  from  the  head  created  by  Gatun  Lake.  Electric 
energy  is  likewise  being  used  -to  operate  the  machinery  and  plant 
used  in  constructing  the  locks.  At  Gatun  and  at  Miraflores  each 
power  plant  consists  of  three  1,500  kilowatt  turbine  generators, 


38  THE   ISTHMIAN    CANAL. 

steam  being  furnished  by  six  400-horsepower  boilers.  Twenty-five 
cycle  alternating  current  is  generated.  About  2,300,000  yards  of 
concrete  will  be  placed  in  the  Gatun  locks  and  spillway.  The  Pedro 
Miguel  locks  and  dams  and  the  Miraflores  locks,  dams,  and  spillway, 
altogether,  will  require  about  the  same  amount. 

Concrete  will  also  be  required  to  line  a  portion  of  Culebra  cut 
under  water  amounting  to  almost  half  a  million  yards,  making  a  total 
of  almost  5,000,000  cubic  yards  of  concrete. 

The  strata  which  have  been  pierced  in  excavating  for  Gatun  locks 
consist  successively  of  red  clay,  argillaceous  sandstone,  conglomerate, 
and  soft  sandstone  (which  is  water  bearing);  and  underneath  these 
strata,  tufa  and  argillaceous  sandstone,  and  finally  fine,  compact, 
impervious  argillaceous  sandstone  are  to  be  found.  The  water  car- 
ried by  the  soft  sandstone  is  small  in  amount  and  comes  from  a  remote 
source  under  pressure  from  the  southeast.  The  strata  dip  to  the 
north.  The  floor  of  the  locks  at  Gatun  rests  upon  either  the  sand- 
stone or  conglomerate,  and  there  will  be  a  thickness  of  not  less  than 
20  feet  of  concrete,  or  concrete  and  hard,  impermeable  rock  between 
the  bottom  of  the  locks  and  the  water-bearing  sandstone. 

Concrete  curt'ain  walls  6  feet  thick  and  from  8  to  18  feet  below  sea 
level  are  being  built  around  the  upper  locks,  from  the  sill  of  the  emer- 
gency dam  to  the  lower  end  of  the  intermediate  gate  abutments,  to 
act  as  a  water  cut-off  where  the  concrete  is  less  than  20  feet  in  thick- 
ness, and  old  French  rails  have  been  embedded  in  the  underlying 
rock  to  act  as  anchors  for  the  concrete,  tying  it  to  the  portion  of  the 
rock  which  acts  as  the  floor. 

The  construction  plant  is  complete  and  elaborate.  Broken  stone 
for  concrete  is  brought  from  a  large  quarry  and  crushing  plant  at 
Porto  Bello,  18  miles  to  the  east  of  Cristobal,  which  has  a  capacity 
of  2,400  cubic  yards  in  eight  hours,  and  sand  from  old  Nombre  de 
Dios,  beyond.  Upward  of  2,000  yards  of  concrete  will  be  laid  daily, 
working  in  two  shifts.  Cement  will  be  brought  from  the  United 
States  in  two  large  steamers  bought  for  the  purpose,  each  of  which 
can  carry  45,000  barrels.  Nearly  5,000,000  barrels  will  be  used. 

Pedro  Miguel  locks  and  dams. — At  Pedro  Miguel  there  is  to  be  a 
single  set  of  locks  with  one  lift  of  30  feet.  The  locks  are  similar  to 
the  Gatun  locks  in  design.  The  dams  connecting  the  locks  with  the 
near-by  hills  on  each  side  at  Pedro  Miguel  are  not  large.  To  the  west 


THE   ISTHMIAN    CANAL.  39 

the  dam  is  of  earth,  1,400  feet  long  with  top  40  feet  wide  at  eleva- 
tion+107.  The  maximum  head  of  water  against  this  dam  will  be 
40  feet.  The  dam  has  an  impermeable  core  of  solid  material  140  feet 
thick.  The  east  dam  will  have  a  concrete  core  550  feet  long,  4  feet 
wide  at  the  top  and  10  feet  wide  at  the  bottom. 

Miraftores  locks  and  dams. — At  Miraflores  there  is  to  be  a  flight  of 
locks  in  pairs,  with  two  lifts  of  27^  feet  each.  The  dams  extend  from 
the  upper  ends  of  the  locks  to  the  nearest  hill  on  each  side.  The 
west  dam  is  2,300  feet  long  and  runs  practically  parallel  with  the 
locks.  It  is  of  earth  with  a  top  width  of  40  feet  at  elevation +  70. 
The  maximum  height  of  water  against  this  dam  is  45  feet.  The  east 
dam  will  be  of  concrete  500  feet  long,  and  a  spillway  having  a  capacity 
of  39,000  cubic  feet  per  second  will  be  built  in  this  dam.  There  will 
be  a  power  plant  similar  to  the  plant  at  Gatun  in  size. 

Sand  for  making  concrete  for  the  Pacific  locks  will  be  brought  from 
the  peninsula  of  Chame,  lying  to  the  west  of  Panama.  Rock  will 
be  transported  by  rail  from  a  quarry  which  has  been  opened  on  the 
west  side  of  Ancon  Hill.  In  handling  the  material  for  mixing  and 
placing  the  concrete,  8  cantilever  cranes  will  be  used. 

The  foregoing  constitute  some  of  the  salient  features  of  the  con- 
struction work.  The  work  is  being  carried  on  with  the  greatest  speed 
practicable,  with  due  regard  to  economy,  and  everything  on  the 
Isthmus  is  subordinated  to  the  construction  work. 

Forming  a  part  of  the  Department  of  Construction  and  Engineer- 
ing on  the  Isthmus  are  the  Quartermaster's  and  Subsistence  depart- 
ments, the  departments  of  Examination  of  Accounts,  and  Disburse- 
ments, and  the  Mechanical  Division,  and  in  the  United  States  is  the 
Purchasing  Department.  The  office  of  the  Chief  Engineer  is  divided 
into  four  divisions.  All  of  these  departments  and  divisions  have 
their  special  functions  and  duties. 

The  Disbursing  Officer  is  the  pay  officer.  The  Isthmian  pay  rolls 
average  about  $1,500,000  per  month.  American  employees  and 
European  laborers  are  paid  in  gold.  West  Indian  laborers  are  paid 
in  silver.  Over  42  tons  of  silver  are  paid  out  monthly.  The  pay 
train  travels  over  the  Isthmus  once  a  month,  from  the  12th  to  the 
16th,  paying  off  all  employees.  From  $400,000  to  $450,000  of  the 
monthly  earnings  of  employees  are  used  to  purchase  money  orders 
on  the  United  States  and  elsewhere.  The  hotel  and  commissary 


40  THE   ISTHMIAN    CANAL. 

receipts  from  commission  employees  are  not  far  from  $300,000  per 
month.  Probably  $250,000  or  more  is  spent  in  Colon  and  Panama, 
and  an  equal  amount  in  the  Zone.  What  becomes  of  the  balance  is 
open  to  conjecture.  Undoubtedly  a  large  part  of  it  is  being  saved. 

The  Examiner  of  Accounts  has  charge  of  the  general  books  of  the 
Commission  and,  with  his  force  of  115  men,  classifies  all  expenditures; 
handles  the  accounting  for  coupon  books  and  meal  tickets;  examines 
claims  and  accounts  presented  for  payment  and  prepares  the  proper 
vouchers;  makes  a  monthly  administrative  examination  of  the  Dis- 
bursing Officer's  accounts  and  counts  the  cash  in  the  hands  of  the 
Disbursing  Officer  every  six  months;  inspects  the  books  and  accounts 
of  all  employees  handling  money  and  coupon  books;  checks  all  pay- 
rolls ;  examines  and  checks  daily,  time  books  of  all  hourly  employees ; 
reports  misconduct  of  employees,  misuse  of  property,  and  violation 
of  rules  and  regulations  in  connection  with  the  efficient  and  eco- 
nomical application  of  labor  and  material;  handles  employees' 
injury  claims:  and  audits  accounts  of  all  revenue  officers. 

The  Quartermaster's  Department  performs  all  duties  in  connec- 
tion with  the  recruiting  of  laborers,  the  housing  of  employees,  the 
construction  and  repair  of  buildings,  the  purchase  of  material  on 
the  Isthmus,  the  custody  and  issue  of  all  material  from  storehouses, 
and  the  supplying  of  animal  transportation.  Under  executive 
order,  at  the  present  time,  no  one  not  an  American  citizen  can  be 
employed  on  the  gold  roll.  The  gold  employees  number  about 
4,200,  and  their  average  period  of  service  on  the  Isthmus  is  over  two 
years.  They  are  all  furnished  suitable  quarters.  The  Commission 
inherited  from  the  French  a  number  of  family  quarters,  and  when  it 
was  necessary  during  the  early  days  of  canal  construction  to  offer 
great  inducements  to  get  men  down  to  the  Isthmus,  the  furnishing  of 
family  quarters  within  a  reasonable  time  was  made  a  condition  under 
which  they  were  employed.  In  addition,  a  considerable  number  of 
new  quarters  have  been  built.  Accordingly  there  are  accommoda- 
tions for  about  1,500  families  of  gold  employees.  The  Commission 
builds  no  family  quarters  for  men  employed  after  January  1,  1908, 
when  this  condition  was  changed,  though,  in  case  any  family 
quarters  become  vacant,  employees  appointed  after  that  date  are 
eligible  for  assignment  thereto.  At  the  present  time  there  are  about 
400  applications  on  file  for  family  quarters.  There  is  a  surplus  of 
bachelor  quarters. 


THE   ISTHMIAN    CANAL.  41 

The  cost  of  constructing  quarters  for  bachelors  averages  from 
$250  to  $500  per  man,  and  for  families  from  $1,200  up.  In  addition 
to  quarters,  the  Commission  furnishes  employees  electric  light,  cer- 
tain furniture,  coal  for  kitchen  stoves,  distilled  water,  and  medical 
service  without  charge.  Employees  may  have  thirty  days'  sick 
leave  with  pay  per  annum,  and  thirty  days'  injury  leave,  and  monthly 
employees  are  allowed  six  weeks  annual  leave  with  pay. 

The  number  of  silver  employees  on  the  rolls  in  any  one  month  is 
much  greater  than  the  number  working  on  any  one  day.  The 
average  West  Indian  laborer  will  not  work  as  long  as  he  has  a  dollar 
in  his  pocket,  and  it  is  a  common  saying  that  if  such  a  laborer's 
pay  is  doubled  he  will  only  work  half  as  many  days.  The  result 
is  that  at  present  the  number  of  silver  employees  at  work  on  any 
one  day  is  about  23,000,  whereas  the  pay  rolls  for  the  month  will 
show  over  30,000  names.  The  Panama  Railroad  employs  in  addi- 
tion a  force  of  about  6,500,  including  the  commissary  force.  Silver 
employees  are  housed  generally  in  barracks,  which,  on  an  average, 
at  the  present  time,  contain  from  20  to  30  men.  A  number  of 
old  French  buildings  have  also  been  fitted  up  so  that  they  can  have 
a  room  to  live  in  with  their  families  if  they  so  desire.  Over  1,000 
family  quarters  are  thus  provided  for  West  Indian  and  200  for 
European  laborers.  During  the  last  year  or  two  there  has  been  a 
movement  among  the  West  Indian  laborers  to  go  into  the  "bush," 
where  they  put  up  a  small  shack,  cultivate  a  small  plat  of  ground, 
and  feel  thoroughly  contented  and  comfortable,  housing  and  feeding 
themselves  independently  of  the  Commission.  At  the  present  time 
less  than  one-fourth  of  the  West  Indians  look  to  the  Commission  for 
their  quarters  and  food. 

The  labor  problem  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  to  solve  on  any 
construction  work  in  the  Tropics.  In  the  early  fifties  the  con- 
struction of  the  Panama  Railroad  was  greatly  handicapped  oy 
lack  of  suitable  labor.  The  French  met  this  same  difficulty,  and 
since  American  occupation  the  problem  of  getting  labor,  training  it, 
and  keeping  it  at  work  has  been  paramount.  The  greatest  suc- 
cess has  been  attained  through  importing  European  laborers  to 
compete  with  and  set  the  pace  for  the  West  Indian  laborers.  Alto- 
gether nearly  12,000  laborers  have  been  brought  from  Spain, 
Italy,  and  Greece,  of  whom  about  4,000  remain  at  the  present 
time.  West  Indian  laborers  have  been  recruited  mostly  from  Bar- 


42  THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL. 

bados,  Guadaloupe,  Martinique,  Trinidad,  and  St.  Kitts.  In  all, 
23,000  West  Indians  have  been  recruited  and  brought  to  the  Isthmus. 
In  addition,  many  thousand  Jamaicans  and  other  West  Indians 
have  come  at  their  own  initiative.  At  the  present  time  the  problem 
can  be  said  to  have  been  solved,  as  there  are  more  laborers  on  the 
Isthmus  than  there  would  be  work  for  if  they  should  want  to  work 
steadily. 

'  The  West  Indian  laborer  is  paid  90  cents  for  a  day  of  nine  hours, 
and  is  furnished  three  meals  by  the  Commission  for  30  cents,  if 
desired.  The  Commission  also  furnishes  him  with  quarters  without 
charge.  The  European  laborer  receives  $1.80  for  nine  hours'  work, 
and  is  charged  40  cents  per  day  for  three  meals.  He  is  likewise  fur- 
nished with  quarters  without  charge.  The  standard  rate  of  pay  for 
American  mechanics  and  other  hourly  gold  employees  is  65  cents  an 
hour.  By  act  of  Congress  the  eight-hour  law  applies  on  the  Isthmus, 
and  is  rigidly  adhered  to.  In  1906,  by  a  supplemental  act  of  Con- 
gress, alien  unskilled  labor  was  excluded  from  the  provisions  of  the 
eight-hour  law.  The  standard  day  for  these  alien  laborers  is  nine 
hours. 

The  average* compensation  received  by  American  employees  is  not 
far  from  $150  per  month.  The  average  monthly  compensation 
received  by  laborers  and  other  silver  employees,  based  on  the  number 
actually  working  in  any  one  day,  is  about  $35. 

The  effects  of  the  climate  are  especially  felt  by  shop  mechanics. 
The  humidity  of  the  atmosphere  prevents  sunstroke,  however,  and 
notwithstanding  the  heat,  sunstroke,  even  among  those  working  in 
the  open,  is  unknown. 

The  life  of  Americans  on  the  Isthmus  has  become  established  in 
grooves  corresponding  very  closely  to  life  in  the  United  States.  The 
Y.  M.  C.  A.  clubhouses  in  the  larger  settlements  afford  recreation, 
and  there  are  social  and  other  organizations  of  the  same  character 
as  are  to  be  found  in  the  United  States.  There  are  over  1,500  Ameri- 
can women  who  are  sharing  alike  the  comforts  and  discomforts  of 
Isthmian  life  with  their  husbands,  and  about  the  same  number  of 
American  children,  not  including  wives  and  children  of  Panama 
Railroad  employees. 

Intimately  connected  with  the  housing  and  care  of  employees  is 
their  feeding  and  furnishing  those  who  keep  house  with  provisions 


THE   ISTHMIAN   CANAL.  43 

and  supplies.  This  is  done  through  the  medium  of  the  Subsistence 
Department,  which  maintains  at  all  settlements  where  there  are  gold 
employees  a  hotel  where  meals  can  be  obtained  by  an  employee  for 
30  cents  each.  The  European  laborers  are  fed  in  what  are  called 
"messes/'  where  for  40  cents  a  day  they  are  given  an  ample  supply  of 
the  food  to  which  they  are  accustomed.  Such  of  the  West  Indian 
laborers  as  are  fed  by  the  Commission  eat  at  so-called  kitchens.  The 
West  Indians  furnish  their  own  mess  kit  and,  after  obtaining  the 
supply  of  food  to  which  they  are  entitled  by  their  meal  ticket,  are  at 
liberty  to  eat  it  wherever  they  wish.  There  are  eighteen  hotels  for 
gold  employees,  and  forty-two  messes  and  kitchens  for  silver 
employees.  In  1906  a  large  hotel,  the  well-known  Tivoli  Hotel,  was 
constructed  at  Ancon.  This  hotel  is  a  rendezvous  for  all  Americans 
on  the  Isthmus.  Here  various  social  organizations  hold  their  regular 
dances,  and  it  is  the  headquarters  for  celebrations  of  various  kinds. 
It  is  the  usual  stopping  place  for  American  visitors.  It  is  operated 
by  the  Subsistence  Department  so  as  to  be  self-supporting,  and  the 
charges  are  in  accordance  with  this  requirement.  At  the  commis- 
saries operated  by  the  Panama  Railroad  not  only  provisions,  includ- 
ing cold-storage  articles,  are  kept,  but  also  clothing  and  everything 
to  meet  the  necessities  of  employees,  which  are  sold  at  reasonable 
prices. 

The  cold-storage  plant  in  Colon  is  operated  by  the  Commissary 
Department,  and  a  trip  through  this  plant  gives  one  a  very  good  idea 
of  the  scale  of  operations  on  the  Isthmus.  From  75  to  80  tons  of 
ice  are  made  daily,  which  is  sold  at  the  rate  of  40  cents  a  hundred 
pounds.  The  cold-storage  supply  of  meats,  vegetables,  etc.,  is  kept 
in  this  plant,  and  shipments  are  made  daily  along  the  line  amounting 
to  nearly  100  tons  per  day,  including  ice.  Accessory  thereto  are 
various  manufacturing  plants,  including  the  laundry  and  bakery, 
with  the  following  daily  output: 

Bakery: 

Loaves  of  bread 13,  000 

Rolls 2,400 

Pies 290 

Pounds  of  roasted  coffee 625 

Pounds  of  cake 450 

Laundry: 

Pieces 7,500 


44  THE   ISTHMIAN    CANAL. 

There  is  also  a  plant  which  turns  out  240  gallons  of  ice  cream  each 
day,  which  retails  for  25  cents  per  quart. 

The  general  purchasing  officer  of  the  Commission  is  in  charge  of 
the  Washington  office,  as  chief  of  office.  He  makes  all  purchases 
and  inspections  of  material  in  the  United  States  requisitioned  by  the 
Quartermaster's  Department,  and  fills  all  vacancies  in  the  "gold" 
personnel  in  accordance  with  civil-service  requirements  from  lists  of 
eligibles  on  file  in  his  office  or  from  certifications  of  the  Civil  Service 
Commission. 

The  foregoing  represents,  generally,  the  organization  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Construction  and  Engineering.  In  addition  there  are  two 
other  coordinate  departments,  the  office  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Com- 
mission and  the  Panama  Railroad  and  steamship  line,  all  under  the 
Chairman  of  the  Commission,  the  latter  coming  under  his  jurisdic- 
tion in  his  capacity  as  President  of  the  Panama  Railroad. 

The  Secretary  of  the  Commission  edits  the  " Canal  Record,"  pub- 
lished weekly  under  the  authority  of  the  Canal  Commission,  handles 
requests  received  for  information  regarding  matters  in  connection 
with  the  canal  work,  and  hears  and  investigates  grievances  of  em- 
ployees. 

DEPARTMENT   OF    SANITATION. 

The  importance  of  the  sanitation  of  Panama,  Colon,  and  the  Canal 
Zone  was  early  recognized  and  a  committee  of  sanitary  experts  ac- 
companied the  Commission  on  its  first  visit  to  the  Isthmus,  in  April, 
1904,  which  led  to  the  organization  of  the  Department  of  Sanitation  two 
months  afterwards.  Besides  the  care  of  the  sick,  the  work  of  this 
department  for  the  improvement  of  public  health  may  be  classed 
under  two  heads,  viz:  First,  the  sanitary  service,  which  includes  all 
work  to  eradicate  yellow  fever,  and  to  reduce  and  control  malaria  and 
other  diseases;  and,  second,  the  quarantine  service,  which  prevents 
the  importation  by  land  or  sea  of  bubonic  plague,  yellow  fever,  chol- 
era, and  smallpox.  The  work  of  the  Sanitary  Department  under  the 
member  of  the  Commission  who  has  been  its  head  since  it  was  organ- 
ized has  been  phenomenally  successful,  and  by  removing  the  cloud 
which  rested  over  the  Isthmus  from  its  insanitary  and  extremely 
unhealthful  condition,  and  thus  making  it  possible  for  Americans  to 
live  and  work  there  in  health  and  happiness,  it  has  performed  a  service 
of  inestimable  value  toward  the  construction  of  the  canal.  The 


THE   ISTHMIAN    CANAL.  45 

present  condition  has  been  reached  only  by  persevering  hard  work. 
There  have  been  134  cases  of  yellow  fever  among  employees  and  34 
deaths,  but  since  1905,  nearly  four  years  ago,  not  a  case  has  been 
known.  Similar  success  has.  attended  the  fight  against  malaria.  In 
1904,  three-fourths  of  the  Zone  population  were  infected  with  malaria, 
and  in  the  early  days  of  canal  construction  the  number  of  employees 
treated  for  malaria  in  hospitals  in  a  year  averaged  over  80  per  cent 
of  the  entire  number.  It  is  scarcely  one-third  of  this  at  present. 

In  the  last  three  years  the  total  sick  rate  of  employees  has  been 
reduced  more  than  one-half,  and  the  death  rate  more  than  two-thirds. 

When  we  consider  the  handicaps  in  the  way  of  insanitary  condi- 
tions under  which  the  French  worked,  we  have  increased  admiration 
for  what  they  accomplished.  Over  1,200  men  are  carried  on  the 
rolls  of  the  Department  of  Sanitation,  and  the  expenditures  amount 
to  $2,000,000  per  annum.  It  will  require  constant  work  and  unceas- 
ing vigilance  to  keep  health  conditions  up  to  the  standard  which  has 
been  established.  The  total  expenses  of  the  Sanitary  Department 
will  amount,  it  is  estimated,  to  about  $20,000,000,  or  a  little  over 
5  per  cent  of  the  total  cost  of  the  canal.  Of  the  total  expenditures 
of  the  French,  less  than  $2,000,000,  or  hardly  one-half  of  one  per  cent 
was  charged  up  to  hospital  service,  and  practically  nothing  to  sani- 
tation. 

The  main  hospitals  are  at  Ancon  and  Colon.  Ancon  Hospital 
takes  patients  from  the  territory  south  of  Tabernilla,  and  Colon  north 
of  Tabernilla.  Ancon  Hospital  has  about  1,450  beds  in  37  wards, 
including  350  for  the  insane,  and  Colon  Hospital  has  400  beds  in  13 
wards.  Ancon  Hospital  was  established  by  the  old  French  company 
in  1883,  and  from  1883  to  1889  over  5,000  deaths  occurred  at  the 
hospital,  1,200  of  which  were  from  yellow  fever.  The  insane  asylum 
forms  a  part  of  Ancon  Hospital,  and  operated  in  connection  with  the 
hospital  is  a  laundry  and  a  dairy.  Employees  receive  medical  atten- 
tion without  charge.  There  is  a  regular  scale  of  charges  for  members 
of  their  families,  private  rooms,  special  nurses,  etc.  In  addition  to 
these  main  hospitals  are  dispensaries  and  sick  camps  in  each  settle- 
ment, with  resident  physicians  to  attend  to  those  whom  it  is  not  nec- 
essary to  take  to  the  hospitals. 

On  Taboga  Island,  in  Panama  Bay,  10  miles  from  shore,  is  the 
sanitarium  for  convalescent  patients,  which  was  established  by  the 


46  THE   ISTHMIAN    CANAL. 

nch  Canal  Company  in  1885.  It  has  accommodations  for  about 
00  patients.  There  is  a  leper  colony  at  Palo  Seco,  on  the  seashore 
west  of  Panama,  with  31  patients. 

The  quarantine  service  is  under  a  chief  quarantine  officer,  with 
quarantine  stations  at  Colon  on  the  Atlantic  side  and  on  Culebra 
Island,  4  miles  from  shore,  on  the  Pacific  side. 

The  sanitary  work  proper  in  Panama,  Colon,  and  in  the  Zone  con- 
sists at  present  of  the  cleaning  of  streets  and  grounds,  the  collection 
and  disposal  of  garbage,  the  extermination  of  rats  and  mosquitoes. 
The  latter  work  requires  draining  low  ground  where  water  collects, 
cutting  grass  and  vegetation,  etc.,  which  work  is  done  by  the  forces 
of  the  construction  divisions  and  quartermaster's  department,  under 
the  supervision  of  the  sanitary  inspectors. 

The  Commission  has  provided  for  the  religious  welfare  of  its  em- 
ployees by  the  employment  of  a  dozen  chaplains  of  different  denomi- 
nations and  by  furnishing  buildings  in  which  to  hold  services.  In 
addition,  nonsectarian  religious  meetings  are  held  in  commission  club 
houses  under  the  auspices  of  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  The  chaplains  are  car- 
ried on  th^  payrolls  of  the  Department  of  Sanitation.  They  visit 
the  hospitals  daily  and  perform  such  duties  in  connection  with  their 
calling  as  may  be  required.  The  Salvation  Army  has  7  stations  and 
does  active  work.  The  headquarters  building  at  Cristobal  was 
erected  by  the  Commission  two  years  ago,  and  in  addition  to  quarters 
for  the  officers  has  a  reading  room,  dormitory,  and  restaurant. 

The  Department  of  Civil  Administration  was  created  to  administer 
civil  government  within  the  Canal  Zone;  that  is,  it  exercises  the 
governmental  rights  conveyed  by  Panama  to  the  United  States  in 
maintaining  and  protecting  the  inhabitants  of  the  Zone  in  the  free 
enjoyment  of  their  liberty,  property,  and  religion.  The  Chairman  of 
the  Commission,  in  whom  is  vested,  by  the  President,  the  authority 
of  the  chief  executive  of  the  Canal  Zone,  has  delegated  that  authority 
to  a  member  of  the  Commission,  who  is  known  as  head  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Civil  Administration.  The  work  of  this  department  is 
divided  among  the  divisions  of  Posts,  Customs  and  Revenues,  Police 
and  Prisons,  Schools,  Fire  Protection,  and  Public  Works;  the  offices 
of  Prosecuting  Attorney,  Treasurer,  and  Auditor  of  the  Canal  Zone; 
and  the  judiciary.  The  latter  include  the  supreme,  circuit,  and  dis- 
trict courts  of  the  Zone.  The  population  of  the  Canal  Zone  is  not 


THE   ISTHMIAN    CANAL.  47 

far  from  70,000.  The  cost  of  government,  paid  from  canal  appro- 
priations, is  about  three-quarters  of  a  million  dollars  per  annum. 
Taxes,  land  rentals,  and  postal  receipts  amount  to  a  third  of  a 
million  dollars  additional.  By  authority  of  Congress,  the  latter  are 
applied  to  the  maintenance  of  the  postal  service,  the  support  of 
public  schools,  the  construction  of  Zone  roads,  etc. 

There  are  17  post-offices  in  the  Zone.  Seventy  per  cent  of  the 
mail  matter  handled  is  carried  free  under  government  frank.  Re- 
ceipts amount  to  about  $100,000  per  annum.  The  expenses  (including 
40  per  cent  of  the  value  of  stamps,  which  is  paid  to  Panama)  are 
50  per  cent  greater. 

At  the  time  of  American  occupation  there  were  327  saloons  in  the 
Zone  paying  from  $12  to  $60  per  annum  for  retail  license.  At  the 
present  time  there  are  56  saloons  paying  $1,200  per  annum.  The 
receipts  from  these  licenses  support  the  schools. 

Rentals  from  agricultural  lands  and  building  lots  amount  to  about 
$25,000  per  annum.  Over  150,000  acres  are  owned  by  the  Govern- 
ment, exclusive  of  Panama  Railroad  Company  holdings.  At  the  last 
session  of  Congress  a  bill  was  passed  authorizing  the  leasing  of  public 
lands  for  a  term  of  twent}7-five  years.  Town  lots  are  rented  for 
from  5  to  30  cents  per  square  meter  per  annum,  which  is  equivalent 
to  about  from  46  cents  to  $2.77  per  100  square  feet.  Agricultural 
land  is  rented  for  $1.20  per  acre  per  annum,  not  more  than  125  acres 
being  leased  to  one  person. 

The  custom  laws  of  the  United  States  are  enforced  in  the  Canal 
Zone  with  the  exception  of  the  rates  of  duty  which  are  as  prescribed 
by  the  Republic  of  Panama.  All  commercial  importations  into  the 
Canal  Zone  pay  a  duty  to  the  Republic  of  Panama.  The  collector 
of  revenues  is  administrator  of  estates  and  administers  without  charge 
on  the  estates  of  deceased  Americans,  who  are  employees  of  either  the 
Isthmian  Canal  Commission  or  Panama  Railroad,  when  the  estate 
consists  of  personal  property  amounting  to  less  than  $1,000.  Fifty 
estates  of  a  value  of  about  $11,000  were  settled  during  the  twelve 
months  ended  June  30th,  1909. 

The  police  force  numbers  250  officers  and  men  and  costs  $250,000 

per  annum.     All  are  Americans  except  96  West  Indians,  who  are 

useful  in  maintaining  order  among  their  own  race.     Arrests  average 

500    per    month.     The    penitentiary,    containing    125    convicts,    is 

ocated  at  Culebra. 


48  THE   ISTHMIAN    CANAL. 

The  school  system,  under  a  superintendent,  is  similar  to  graded 
public  schools  in  the  United  States.  There  are  12  schools  for  white 
children  and  17  for  colored  children.  High  schools  for  white  children 
are  located  at  Culebra  and  Cristobal.  About  650  white  children  are 
enrolled  and  1,300  colored. 

The  fire  department  consists  of  7  paid  and  19  volunteer  com- 
panies under  a  fire  chief  and  affords  protection  to  over  $20,000,000 
worth  of  property.  It  costs  about  $110,000,  equal  to  about  one-half 
of  1  per  cent  of  the  value  of  the  property  protected.  During  the 
past  year  there  have  been  78  alarms,  with  a  total  loss  of  less  than 
$3,000. 

The  Division  of  Public  Works  has  supervision  over  the  eight 
public  markets,  the  two  public  slaughterhouses,  and  the  construc- 
tion and  maintenance  of  roads  and  trails.  Sixty  miles  of  trails  have 
been  cleared  and  partially  graded,  12  miles  of  macadam  roads  built, 
and  18  miles  of  macadam  roads  are  either  under  construction  or 
will  be  undertaken  as  soon  as  funds  are  available.  Prison  labor  is 
used  on  road  work  so  far  as  practicable.  This  Division  is  also  charged 
with  the  operation  of  the  waterworks  and  sewers,  and  maintenance 
of  pavements,  in  the  cities  of  Panama  and  Colon.  It  passes  upon 
all  applications  for  water  and  sewer  connections,  inspects  plumbing, 
and  keeps  records  of  water  consumed,  for  which  it  prepares  bills 
and  makes  collections  thereon.  On  June  30,  1909,  there  were  1,292 
water  connections  in  Panama  and  464  in  Colon.  The  annual  collec- 
tions for  the  year  ended  June  30,  1909,  were  $66,348.45  in  Panama 
and  $71,275.80  in  Colon. 

The  judicial  branch  of  the  Canal  Zone  government  consists  of  a 
supreme  court,  three  circuit  courts,  and  four  district  courts.  The 
chief  justice  and  the  two  associate  justices  of  the  supreme  court  are 
also  the  judges  of  the  three  circuit  courts.  In  capital  cases  trial  is 
by  jury. 

The  Panama  Railroad  is  operated  as  a  corporation  and,  in  connec- 
tion with  it,  the  Panama  steamship  line  of  six  steamers,  four  of  which 
have  been  purchased  by  the  Commission  and  chartered  to  the  Panama 
Railroad  Steamship  Line.  The  gross  receipts  of  the  company  are 
not  far  from  $6,000,000  per  annum.  The  stock  is  owned  by  the 
United  States.  The  work  of  rebuilding  the  Panama  Railroad,  made 
necessary  from  canal-construction  work,  which  is  under  the  engi- 
neering forces  of  the  railroad,  is  proceeding  at  a  rate  which  will  enable 


THE  ISTHMIAN   CANAL.  49 

the  stretch  between  Gatun  and  Gamboa  to  be  completed  by  the  time 
the  rising  waters  of  Gatun  Lake  flood  the  present  tracks  crossing 
the  bed  of  the  lake.  In  less  than  two  years  the  new  line  will  be 
ready  for  operation  between  Colon  and  Gamboa,  a  distance  of  31 
miles.  On  the  Pacific  end  traffic  will  be  carried  on  the  new  line 
between  Paraiso  and  Panama  within  a  comparatively  short  time, 
there  being  little  work  remaining.  So  long  as  necessary  the  present 
tracks  between  Corozal  and  Pedro  Miguel  will  be  used  by  dirt  trains. 
To  date,  on  relocation  work,  over  1,500,000  cubic  yards  of  material 
have  been  excavated  and  5,000,000  yards  placed  in  embankments. 
Twenty-two  miles  of  permanent  track  have  been  laid.  From  2,000 
to  2,500  men  are  employed  on  this  work.  The  work  will  cost  about 
$8,000,000. 

Inquiry  is  often  made  as  to  the  liability  of  danger  to  canal  works 
from  earthquakes.  So  far  as  records  are  available  no  such  danger 
need  be  apprehended.  Masonry  structures  of  unsubstantial  con- 
struction have  been  standing  in  Panama  for  upwards  of  two  hundred 
years — ever  since  the  old  Spanish  days.  The  Isthmus,  in  fact,  is 
outside  of  the  zone  of  earthquake  disturbances,  which  are  frequent 
both  north  of  it  and  along  the  coast  of  South  America.  A  seismo- 
graph has  been  installed  in  Ancon  for  the  purpose  of  recording  any 
tremors.  The  location  of  Panama  with  reference  to  the  disturbances 
in  Central  America  is  not  clearly  appreciated  everywhere  in  the  United 
States.  For  instance,  when  Acapulco,  in  Mexico,  was  shaken  in  the 
latter  part  of  July,  some  apprehension  was  felt  as  to  the  effects  of  this 
earthquake  in  Panama.  Inasmuch  as  Panama  is  about  as  distant 
from  the  territory  shaken  as  it  is  from  South  Carolina,  it  would 
have  been  more  appropriate  to  have  felt  solicitude  for  the  safety  of 
the  Gulf  States.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  has  been  proved,  especially 
in  the  States  bordering  on  the  Pacific  Ocean,  that  earth  dams  and 
large  concrete  structures  imbedded  in  the  ground  are  practically 
immune  from  injury  from  earthquake  shocks  no  matter  how  severe, 
and  such  structures  will  remain  unharmed  where  buildings  of  all 
classes  would  be  destroyed.  The  earthquake  bugbear,  so  far  as  the 
Panama  Canal  is  concerned,  may  be  relegated  to  the  background. 

As  is  well  known,  there  is  no  other  place  on  the  globe  where  the . 
temperature  is  so  constant,  day  and  night,  from  day  to  day  and  from 
one  month  to  another.     The  average  temperature  is  about  79°  the 


50  THE  ISTHMIAN   CANAL. 

year  round.  The  daily  variation  is  seldom  as  much  as  20°;  in  fact, 
in  the  shade,  the  mercury  rarely  gets  out  of  the  seventies  and  eighties 
either  night  or  day,  winter  or  summer.  Taking  the  average  monthly 
temperatures,  the  variation  for  the  twelve  months  is  only  about 
3°.  Compare  this  with  the  variation  in  average  monthly  temperature, 
of  Washington,  D.  C.,  which  is  about  43°.  Panama  owes  its  relief 
from  the  scorching  heat  of  the  tropical  sun  and  its  nights  of  even 
temperature  to  the  belt  of  aqueous  vapor  which  hangs  over  it  and 
permeates  the  atmosphere.  This  makes  the  conditions  different  from 
what  one  would  expect  in  the  vicinity  of  the  equator.  The  humidity 
is  always  high,  usually  over  85  per  cent,  and  this  is  the  most  dis- 
agreeable feature  of  the  Isthmian  climate.  It  is  necessary,  however, 
and  is  preferable  to  the  heat  which  would  otherwise  be  felt. 

Among  important  matters  in  connection  with  canal  construction 
are: 

First.  Its  cost. 

Second.  How  much  money  has  been  spent  to  date. 

Third.  How  much  work  has  been  accomplished;  and 

Fourth.  When  will  it  be  finished.     , 

The  cost  of  an  85-foot  level  lock  canal  as  estimated  by  the  Board  of 
Consulting  Engineers  in  1906  was  about  $140,000,000,  not  including 
expenses  of  the  Canal  Zone  government,  of  the  Department  of  Sani- 
tation, or  the  $50,000,000  paid  to  the  French  Canal  Company  and 
to  the  Republic  of  Panama.  As  estimated  in  December,  1908,  the  cost 
will  be  about  $298,000,000,  with  the  same  items  excluded,  or  about 
$158,000,000  in  excess  of  the  original  estimate.  Of. this  excess, 
$100,000,000  is  for  construction  work  and  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
present  plans  provide  for  increased  width  of  channel,  increased  size 
of  locks,  etc.,  which  have  resulted  in  an  increase  of  over  50  per 
cent  in  the  amount  of  work  to  be  done  as  compared  with  the  estimate 
of  1906.  The  1906  estimate  was  based  also  on  the  ten-hour  day, 
while  the  eight-hour  day  has  been  established  by  act  of  Congress, 
which  has  increased  the  cost  of  skilled  hourly  labor  20  per  cent.  The 
increase  in  cost  of  "Administration,  engineering,  and  contingencies"' 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  20  per  cent  added  to  the  1906  estimate 
to  cover  same  was  totally  inadequate.  It  was  sufficient  for  the 
" General  expenses"  of  the  work,  but  did  not  in  addition  make 
allowance  for  roads,  waterworks,  and  sewers,  which  will  cost 
$12,000,000;  for  buildings  which  will  cost  over  $14,000,000;  for 


THE  ISTHMIAN   CANAL.  51 

double  tracking  the  Panama  Kailroad,  purchase  of  additional  steamers, 
docks,  and  wharves  leased  to  the  Panama  Railroad,  and  loans  to  the 
Panama  Railroad,  together  amounting  to  over  $12,000,000,  etc.  The 
total  estimate  of  $140,000,000  in  1906  did  not  include  the  expenses  of 
the  Department  of  Sanitation  and  Zone  government,  which  are 
estimated  to  cost  about  $27,500,000,  and  the  $50,000,000  paid  the 
French  Canal  Company  and  Panama. 

Work  is  proceeding  hi  accordance  with  the  estimate  of  1908, 
amounting  to  $297,766,000  for  engineering  work,  to  which  should  be 
added  $27,500,000  for  sanitation  and  civil  administration  and 
$50,000,000  paid  to  the  French  Canal  Company  and  to  the  Republic 
of  Panama,  making  a  total  of  $375,201,000.  Of  this  amount,  56  per 
cent,  or  $210,000,000,  has  been  appropriated  and  estimates  have 
been  submitted  for  the  action  of  Congress  next  December  amounting 
to  $48,000,000,  which  will  be  sufficient  to  carry  the  work  up  to  June 
30,  1911,  and  when  these  funds  have  been  expended  the  canal  will 
be  about  two-thirds  completed.  One  hundred  and  sixty-five  million 
dollars  is  yet  to  be  appropriated,  and  if  the  $48,000,000  asked  for  is 
appropriated  by  the  next  Congress  there  will  remain  $117,000,000  to 
be  appropriated  after  the  next  session  of  Congress. 

A  good  deal  has  been  said  about  the  issue  of  Panama  Canal  bonds 
in  connection  with  appropriations.  The  bonds  and  the  appropri- 
ations are  two  entirely  separate  matters.  By  paying  for  the  cost  of 
the  canal  out  of  current  Treasury  funds  no  bonds  would  be  necessary. 
The  bonds  are  provided — 

First.  To  distribute  the  cost  of  the  canal  over  a  period  of  years  in 
the  future,  to  be  paid  when  the  bonds  fall  due,  and 

Second.  To  insure  sufficient  funds  being  in  the  Treasury  to  enable 
canal  construction  work  to  be  continued  without  interruption. 

The  special  act  of  1902  authorized  a  bond  issue  of  $130,000,000. 
This  was  not  expected  to  defray  the  entire  cost  of  the  canal,  but 
only  to  distribute  a  portion  of  the  cost  of  the  work  over  the  future 
years.  The  only  estimate  available  at  that  time  was  that  made  by 
the  Commission  of  1901,  which  reported  on  the  relative  advantage  of 
the  Panama  and  Nicaragua  routes,  which  estimate  amounted  to  about 
$144,000,000.  This  did  not  include  either  payments  to  the  French 
Canal  Company  and  to  the  Republic  of  Panama  or  the  expenses  of 
sanitation  and  civil  administration. 


52  THE   ISTHMIAN   CANAL. 

Just  before  adjournment  two  weeks  ago  Congress  authorized  the 
issue  of  additional  bonds  toward  the  construction  of  a  canal  up  to  the 
full  amount  of  the  estimate  for  a  lock  canal,  $375,201,000.  This 
action  further  confirmed  and  finally  fixed  the  policy  of  the  country  in 
regard  to  the  completion  of  the  lock  canal  and  removed  the  only 
possible  obstacle  to  its  progress,  viz,  lack  of  funds. 

In  accordance  therewith,  appropriations  of  from  $45,000,000  to 
$50,000,000  for  the  next  two  years;  from  $25,000,000  to  $35,000,000 
for  the  following  two  years,  and  $10,000,000  for  the  latter  half  of 
the  calendar  year  1914,  will  enable  the  canal  to  be  opened  and 
ready  for  use  by  January  1,  1915. 

The  principal  items  entering  into  the  completed  canal  are : 

First.  Excavation; 

Second.  Concrete  for  locks  and  spillways;  and 

Third.  Embankment  and  fill  for  dams,  breakwaters,  etc. 

The  total  excavation  required  for  the  completed  canal  will  amount 
to  about  174,500,000  cubic  yards,  which  is  equivalent  to  a  cube 
measuring  nearly  1,700  feet  on  a  side. 

Concrete  amounting  to  4,850,000  cubic  yards  will  be  required, 
which  is  equivalent  to  a  cube  measuring  over  500  feet  on  a  side. 

Embankment  and  fill  required  for  the  dams  will  amount  to  about 
23,000,000  cubic  yards,  which  is  equivalent  to  a  cube  measuring  over 
800  feet  on  a  side.  Three  and  a  half  million  cubic  yards  of  material 
will  be  used  as  back  fill  for  the  locks,  and  5,700,000  cubic  yards  for 
the  Atlantic  breakwaters. 

Of  the  excavation,  about  82,000,000  cubic  yards  were  completed 
to  August  1,  1909,  or  47  per  cent.  Excavation  is  proceeding  at  the 
rate  of  about  35,000,000  cubic  yards  per  annum. 

Concrete  has  been  laid  to  the  amount  of  about  45,000  cubic  yards. 
The  laying  of  concrete  in  the  Gatun  and  Pedro  Miguel  locks  starts 
this  month,  and  will  continue  during  the  rest  of  this  fiscal  year 
at  an  increasing  rate  that  will  soon  reach  100,000  cubic  yards  per 
month. 

To  August  1,  1909,  backfill  and  embankment  had  been  placed 
amounting  to  about  4,400,000  cubic  yards.  This  work  will  continue 
at  the  rate  of  from  400,000  to  500,000  cubic  yards  per  month. 


THE   ISTHMIAN   CANAL.  53 

On  July  1,  1909,  the  cost  was,  in  round  figures,  as  follows: 

Department  of  Construction  and  Engineering $95^  100, 000 

Department  of  Sanitation 8,  800, 000 

Department  of  Civil  Administration 2,  900,  000 


Total , 106,  800, 000 

In  addition  to  the  above  there  should  be  added  the  $40,000,000 
paid  to  the  French  Canal  Company,  $10,000,000  paid  to  the  Republic 
of  Panama,  $4,000,000  loaned  to  the  Panama  Railroad  Company, 
and  $5,500,000  for  material  and  supplies  which  have  been  purchased 
and  are  on  hand,  and  for  other  similar  items,  which  may  be  con- 
sidered as  assets,  not  having  been  yet  applied  to  the  work.  In  other 
words,  cash  had  been  expended  from  congressional  appropriations 
to  July  1,  1909,  amounting  to  $166,300,000,  or  nearly  45  per  cent  of 
the  total  estimated  cost. 

The  foregoing  is  a  statement  of  the  present  condition  of  work.  An 
endeavor  has  been  made  also  to  trace  the  growth  of  the  canal  idea 
and  to  indicate  that  it  is  not  a  matter  in  which  the  United  States 
alone  is  interested,  but  is  an  enterprise  from  which  other  nations 
will  benefit  and  which  the  whole  world  demands  shall  be  completed. 
The  United  States  entered  upon  it  appreciating  its  interest  and 
responsibilities  and  its  mission  among  the  nations  of  the  world,  and 
in  so  doing  committed  itself  to  a  project  which  time  had  shown  was 
too  large  for  any  individuals  or  corporation  to  carry  to  a  successful 
termination. 

There  have  been  some  who  at  various  times  have  thought  that  the 
difficulties  will  be  too  great,  the  cost  excessive,  or  the  returns  insuffi- 
cient. There  need  be  no  fears  on  these  points.  The  pride  of  the 
American  people  can  not  be  measured  by  dollars  and  cents. 

Moreover,  the  time  to  consider  such  matters  passed  when  the 
United  States  committed  itself  to  a  work  from  which  it  could  not 
afterwards  recede  without  great  loss  of  prestige. 

The  facts  are  plain;  the  project  is  feasible;  the  work  is  well  on 
toward  being  half  completed;  bonds  have  been  authorized  to  the 
full  amount  of  the  estimate  for  a  lock  canal. 

It  will  be  finished  as  quickly  as  possible,  and  there  should  now 
be  no  looking  backward. 

The  present  plans  are  the  best,  the  work  is  well  in  hand,  and  within 
about  five  years  communication  between  the  Mississippi  Valley  and 
the  Pacific  coast  by  water,  via  the  Isthmus,  will  be  open. 

O 


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THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
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OVERDUE. 


LD  21-100m-12,'43  (8796s) 


L          Pamphlet 
Binder 

|    Gaylord  Bros.,  Inc. 
|        Stockton,  Calif. 
T.  M.  Reg.  U.S.  Pat.  Off. 


M67199TCT14. 


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